## Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science: Lessons from our History
D. P. Roy
Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education,
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, V. N. Purav Marg, Mumbai - 400088, India Abstract
I shall discuss the history of Indian astronomy, Aurveda (life science), chemistry and metallurgy to illustrate how downgrading experiments from scientific learning lead to the decline of ancient Indian science and civilization. We shall see that in the glorious period of ancient Indian civilization, lasting up to the 9th century, there was close interaction between experimental investigations and theoretical analyses in each of these sciences. This was further augmented by two-way interactions with the other advanced civilizations of that time. But both these interactions came to an end around 9th century, leading to the stagnation and decline of Indian science and civilization over the next thousand years. This was the cause rather than the consequence of its subjugation by external invaders, though it was no doubt aggravated by the latter. 1
Key Words: Experiments, Ancient Indian Science, Alchemy, Astronomy, Aurveda, Metallurgy
## Introduction:
Let me confess from the beginning that the subject of this article is not the subject of my research. But it is a subject of my concern as an Indian scientist. And I shall present it largely in the words of some Indian scientists of very high esteem, who were deeply concerned about this matter. My only role is one of compilation and occasional elaboration of their comments.
The following sections discuss the ancient Indian chemistry, astronomy, metallurgy and Aurveda in that order. In each case there was close interaction between experimental investigations and theoretical analyses during the glorious period of its history,
1 This article is dedicated to the memory of the famous nuclear physicist and erudite scholar, Prof. Manoj Kumar Pal, who passed away on 3 March 2016.
lasting up to the 9th century. We shall also see that for the three technological sciences of chemistry, metallurgy and Ayurveda, the experimental developments were closely interlinked to one another, so that all the three had a synergetic growth during this period. Moreover, there was a healthy interaction with other advanced civilizations of that time, which particularly influenced the advances in astronomy. However, all these interactions came to an end towards the 9 th century, leading to the stagnation and decline of Indian science and civilization over the next thousand years. By the 19 th century the only vestiges of that glorious civilization left was in the form of relics like the Delhi iron pillar and the anecdotal evidences of highly skilled surgery and metallurgy, performed by some illiterate Indian practitioners of these trades. This had profoundly stirred the conscience of the famous scientists of Indian renaissance like Acharya P. C. Ray and Prof. Meghnad Saha, as we shall see below.
## Chemistry:
In his address as the Sectional President of physics and mathematics of the Indian National Science Congress (1926), Meghnad Saha quoted the following lines from a 9 th century Sanskrit text on chemistry, called 'Rasendra Chintamani' by Dhuduknath, which was brought to his notice by his teacher Acharya P. C. Ray.
'I have heard much from the lips of savants, I have seen many formulae well-established in scriptures, but I am not recording any which I have not done myself. I am fearlessly recording only those that I have carried out before my elders with my own hand. Only they are to be regarded as real teachers who can show by experiments what they teach. They are the deserving pupils, who can actually perform them after having learned from their teachers. The rest are merely stage actors.'
Why was this 9 th century chemist recording his views on the role of experiments in such strong words? The reason was that by that time the downgrading of experiments from scientific learning and the consequent stagnation of science had already begun in India. Meghnad Saha and P. C. Ray were not only great scientists, but they were also great stalwarts of the Indian renaissance. As such they had a deep understanding of the ancient Indian civilization in its merits as well as its mistakes and limitations. So they were highlighting the latter to the younger generations so that they can learn from these mistakes and overcome the limitations. The definition of stage actors in science was taken quite seriously by Saha at the time of delivering his address; and he issued a warning apprehending that they could vitiate the progress of new science in India [1]. I shall come back to this point and Acharya P. C. Ray's reflections on it at the end of this article. But for now let us continue with the history of Indian chemistry after the 9 th century.
According to Acharya P. C. Ray [2], Indian chemistry continued to develop for a few centuries after this mainly as the empirical science of alchemy. Alchemy was shunned by Brahmins, but practiced by men of all other castes. There were many pioneers in alchemy; and an outstanding figure named Nagarjuna has been respectfully mentioned in Alberuni's India of early 11 th century to have lived a century earlier. But there could be several Nagarjunas in history, since Hsuan-tsang in 7 th century refers to a famous Buddhist alchemist by that name to have lived 5-6 centuries earlier! Alchemy was taught in the monasteries of Nalanda, Vikramasila and Udantapura till their destruction around 1200 AD by Bakhtiar Khilzi. After this the alchemists fled to Tibet and Deccan [3]. P. C. Ray traces back the development of chemistry in India to this subaltern culture of alchemy, which survived through the medieval period, away from the intellectual strata of society [2].
## Astronomy:
The Calendar Reforms Committee, set up under Meghnad Saha soon after independence, made a thorough review of the three periods of Indian astronomy - i.e. Vedic (→1300 BC), Vedanga (1300 BC - 400 AD) and Siddhanta (400 - 900 AD) periods. According to this review, during the Vedanga period the emphasis had shifted from collecting data from experimental observations to achieving more computational precision. But the Sakas and Kusanas brought the contemporaneous knowledge of Astronomy from Bactria to north-west India. This latest exposure initiated the great spurt of activities towards the end of this period by augmenting the experimentally observed database. This ushered in the Siddhanta era [1]. Surya Siddhanta is assigned to 3 rd century AD, followed by a quick succession of luminaries : Aryabhatta and Varahamihira (~ 500 AD), Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I (~ 600 AD), Lalla (8 th century). Aryabhatta authored Aryabhatiya and a revised version of Surya Siddhanta. He also had a profound influence on the development of Islamic astronomy. So there was a two-way interaction with other cultures during the Siddhanta era. Evidently the interacting cultures all benefited from this, as they could learn from each other's strong points. The following two passages summarize the influence of other cultures on Indian astronomy and that of the Indian astronomy on other cultures [3].
The Yavanajataka was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by Yavaneswara during 2 nd century AD under Saka king Rudradaman. His capital Ujjain was the 'Greenwich of Indian Astronomy'. Later in the 6 th century, Romaka Siddhanta and Paulisa Siddhanta, meaning the treatises of Romans and Paul, were two of the five treatises of Varahamihira called Pancha-Siddhanta. He wrote 'The Greeks, though impure, must be honoured since they were trained in sciences and therein excelled others'. Similarly Gargi-Samhita says 'The Yavanas are Barbarians, yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for this they must be revered like Gods'.
These statements illustrate the positive attitude of Indian astronomers to external influence during its glorious era.
On the other hand, Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of Buddhism during the Han dynasty (25-220 AD). Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China during the Three Kingdoms era (220-265 AD). However, most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD). Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of chords of arc used in Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by Muslim astronomers. Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via Arabic translations. Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind, which was based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta, was translated into Latin in 1126.
There was a gradual decline in Siddhanta astronomy after the 9 th century. Although there were great exponents like Bhaskara II (12 th century), Nilakantha's Kerala School (15-16 th century) and Samanta Chandra Sekhar (19 th century), they were few and far between. Let me quote a few lines from the keynote address to a national symposium on Samata Chandra Sekhar by the famous nuclear physicist and ex-director of Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Prof. M. K. Pal [1].
'The last exponent of Indian Siddhanta astronomy, Samanta Chandra Sekhar, lived in Orissa from 1835 to 1904. He constructed his own instruments, acquired great skill in using them for accurate observations of sun, moon, planets and stars. When he found by repeated observations that the measured positions in most cases do not agree with results computed using the famous Siddhantas, he boldly concluded that the latter are in error, not his experimental determinations. He wrote his findings in Siddhanta Darpana on palm leaves in Sanskrit using Oriya script. Prof. J. C. Ray of
Ravenshaw College, Cuttack, arranged to publish it in Devanagari script through a Calcutta press thirty years later in 1899.'
The most glaring error of the Indian classical Siddhantas is the prediction of the summer and winter solstices (the latter called Makara Samkranti), and the autumn and vernal equinoxes (the latter called Vishuva Samkranti). They were first determined using the simple devise called Gnomon (Sanku in India), in which the direction and length of the shadow of a vertical rod were measured to determine the cardinal directions and time (Fig 1).
<details>
<summary>Image 1 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Diagram: The Gnomon and its Shadow
### Overview
The diagram illustrates the relationship between a vertical gnomon (a vertical object) and its shadow under sunlight. A dotted line represents sunlight rays originating from a stylized sun icon in the top-left corner, casting a shadow labeled "Ombre" (French for "shadow") extending horizontally to the right. The gnomon is labeled in red text, and the shadow is labeled in black text. A text box in the top-right corner identifies the diagram as "Fig 1. The Gnomon and its shadow [4]."
### Components/Axes
- **Gnomon**: A vertical brown line labeled "Gnomon" in red text, positioned on the left side of the diagram.
- **Shadow (Ombre)**: A horizontal gray line labeled "Ombre" in black text, extending from the base of the gnomon to the right edge of the diagram.
- **Sunlight**: Represented by a dotted line connecting the sun icon (top-left) to the tip of the gnomon.
- **Text Box**: Contains the title "Fig 1. The Gnomon and its shadow [4]" in black text, positioned in the top-right quadrant.
### Detailed Analysis
- **Gnomon**: The vertical object is depicted as a simple brown line with no explicit height measurement. Its position is fixed at the left edge of the diagram.
- **Shadow (Ombre)**: The shadow is a horizontal line starting at the base of the gnomon and extending to the right. Its length is proportional to the angle of the sunlight, as indicated by the dotted line from the sun to the gnomon's tip.
- **Sunlight**: The dotted line suggests the sun is at an angle, creating a diagonal relationship between the gnomon and its shadow. The sun icon is stylized with radiating yellow rays.
- **Text**: The French term "Ombre" is used for the shadow, with no English translation provided in the diagram. The figure number "[4]" is included in the text box, likely referencing a source or footnote.
### Key Observations
1. The shadow's length is not quantified, but its direction and proportionality to the gnomon's height are implied by the dotted sunlight line.
2. The use of "Ombre" (French) instead of "Shadow" (English) suggests a bilingual or culturally specific context.
3. The diagram lacks numerical data, scales, or explicit measurements, focusing instead on geometric relationships.
### Interpretation
The diagram demonstrates the principle of shadow formation based on the sun's angle relative to a vertical object (gnomon). The shadow's length increases as the sun's elevation decreases, a relationship visually represented by the dotted line's slope. The inclusion of "Ombre" (French) may indicate a pedagogical or regional context where French terminology is preferred. The absence of numerical values limits quantitative analysis but emphasizes the conceptual relationship between light angle and shadow geometry. The simplicity of the diagram prioritizes clarity over complexity, making it suitable for educational purposes.
</details>
The minimum shadow length marks midday and its direction the cardinal north-south direction. In tropical regions the largest midday shadow length along north (south) marks winter (summer) solstice. And the two mid-points in time between the two solstices mark the two equinoxes. At the time of this calibration around 400 AD Helial (Sun synchronous) rising of the constellation Capricorn
(Makara) matched with the winter solstice of 21-22 December and that of Cancer (Karkata) matched with the summer solstice of 2122 June. That is why the southern and northern tropics were named tropics of Capricorn (Makara kranti) and Cancer (Karkata kranti), while the equinoxes matched with the vertical alignment of sun over the equator (Vishuva rekha). However, precession of the earth's rotation axis over the past 1600 years has resulted in a 23 days gap between the celestial and terrestrial markers. Evidently the terrestrial events like the change of season and harvest of crops are determined by the true solstice and equinox times corresponding to the terrestrial markers rather than the celestial ones. This is a glaring example of how blind following of the ancient scriptures without experimental recalibration leads to wrong solstice and equinox times.
Fig 2. Present solar alignment of different constellations over the year [5].
<details>
<summary>Image 2 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Diagram: Earth's Orbit and Zodiac Constellations
### Overview
The diagram illustrates the Earth's orbit around the Sun, overlaid with the positions of 12 zodiac constellations. The Earth's orbit is depicted as a circular path with directional arrows indicating seasonal transitions (September, January, May, July). The Sun is centrally located, and constellations are arranged along the orbital path, with their names labeled.
### Components/Axes
- **Central Elements**:
- **Sun**: Labeled "Sun" in yellow, positioned at the center.
- **Earth's Orbit**: A blue circular path labeled "Earth's Orbit," with four blue arrows pointing to seasonal markers (September, January, May, July).
- **Zodiac Constellations**:
- 12 constellations (e.g., Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces, Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio) are labeled in white text along the orbital path.
- Constellation patterns are represented by white dots connected by lines.
- **Seasonal Markers**:
- Arrows point to four positions on the orbit:
- **September** (top-left),
- **January** (bottom),
- **May** (top-right),
- **July** (bottom-right).
- **Legend**:
- Blue: Earth's orbit and directional arrows.
- White: Zodiac constellation labels and patterns.
- Yellow: Sun.
### Detailed Analysis
- **Zodiac Constellation Placement**:
- Starting from the top (September):
1. **Sagittarius** (topmost),
2. **Capricorn** (left of Sagittarius),
3. **Aquarius** (below Capricorn),
4. **Pisces** (left of Aquarius),
5. **Aries** (below Pisces),
6. **Taurus** (below Aries),
7. **Gemini** (below Taurus),
8. **Cancer** (below Gemini),
9. **Leo** (right of Cancer),
10. **Virgo** (below Leo),
11. **Libra** (right of Virgo),
12. **Scorpio** (below Libra),
13. **Sagittarius** (closing the loop).
- **Seasonal Arrows**:
- Arrows are evenly spaced along the orbit, pointing to the four cardinal months.
- The orbit is divided into 12 equal segments, aligning with the zodiac constellations.
### Key Observations
- The diagram emphasizes the cyclical relationship between Earth's orbit and the zodiac constellations, with each constellation occupying a 30° segment of the orbit.
- The Sun is centrally positioned, reinforcing its role as the focal point of the solar system.
- The seasonal markers (September, January, May, July) are placed at 90° intervals, corresponding to the Earth's axial tilt and orbital position.
### Interpretation
This diagram demonstrates how the Earth's orbit and axial tilt influence the visibility of zodiac constellations throughout the year. The placement of constellations along the orbital path suggests their apparent movement across the sky as Earth revolves around the Sun. The seasonal markers highlight key points in the orbital cycle, likely correlating with solstices and equinoxes. The use of color (blue for orbit, white for constellations) aids in distinguishing dynamic elements (orbit) from static celestial patterns (constellations). The diagram serves as an educational tool to visualize the connection between astronomy and seasonal cycles.
</details>
Fig 2 [5] is taken from an article of Prof. M. N. Vahia on why we observe Makara Samkranti on 14 January [6]. It clearly shows that the present solar alignment with the constellation Capricorn (Makara) indeed starts at mid-January instead of the true winter solstice of 21-22 December. The slow time drift of the solstice and equinox was empirically known to the ancient Greek astronomers. Therefore it must have been known to the Siddhanta astronomers of India as well. So the question is why the necessary recalibration to account for this drift was not done. The reason could be one of societal attitude. Firstly to dirty your hands with experiments; and secondly when you find after yearlong painstaking observations that your empirical results are in conflict with the predictions of time honoured scriptures, who will listen to you? So the astronomers by and large chose the easy option of following the scriptures on the excuse that the Makara Samkranti corresponds to the alignment of sun with the celestial Makara constellation rather than the terrestrial Makara kranti, although the former has little relevance to the terrestrial phenomena as mentioned above. In many parts of India the Vishuva Samkranti on 14 April, marking the start of the solar month of Baishakh, is even a more important festival than the Makara Samkranti. It marks the start of the new year in Bengal and Orissa, and also in Kerala, where it is called Vishu Samkranti. It is celebrated in Mangalore as Bishu and in Assam as Bihu. It again comes after 23 days of the true Vernal Equinox; and in this case one does not even have the alibi of a celestial marker by that name. The Indian Calendar Reforms Committee had suggested removing the historical misnomers from the Baishakh Samkranti of 14 April and Magh Samkranti of 14 January, and recognize the true Vernal Equinox and Winter Solstice in the Indian calendar as Vishuva rekha Divas and Makara kranti Divas respectively. But it went unheeded.
Another serious limitation of Indian astronomy of this period is the non-recording of purely empirical phenomena. The Chinese have
kept data of meteoric showers, 29 appearances of Halley's comet, 90 novae and supernovae along with intense sunspot activities [1]. Yet there is no Indian record of these empirical phenomena, presumably because they did not relate to astronomical theories of that time. In particular, the spectacular Crab supernova explosion of 11 th century appeared as the second brightest object after the moon in the night sky for several weeks. It has been recorded by the Chinese, Arab and even Mayan astronomers of Mexico. Yet there is no credible evidence of Indian astronomical record of this very important event. This was the conclusion of Profs. J. V. Narlikar and S. Bhate after a thorough search of the contemporary Indian documents on an INSA project.
## Metallurgy [3]:
India was a major exporter of ferrous metals throughout ancient history. The iron pillars of Delhi, originally from Vididsha (400 AD), and of Dhar (1000 AD) stand living testimony to the skills of ancient Indian metallurgists.
Fig 3. The iron pillar of Delhi
<details>
<summary>Image 3 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Photograph: Ancient Archaeological Site with Monumental Pillar
### Overview
The image depicts an archaeological site under a clear blue sky. Central to the composition is a tall, dark stone pillar with a tapered shaft and a decorative capital. The pillar is encircled by a low, rust-colored metal fence with pointed finials. Surrounding the pillar are partially ruined stone structures, including columns and arches, suggesting a historical or religious complex. Scaffolding is visible near the ruins, indicating ongoing restoration work. Two individuals are present: one near the fence (possibly a visitor) and another near the scaffolding (likely a worker).
### Components/Axes
- **Central Pillar**:
- Material: Dark stone (likely basalt or granite).
- Features: Tapered shaft, ornate capital with geometric or floral motifs.
- No visible inscriptions or text.
- **Ruins**:
- Stone blocks and columns in varying states of decay.
- No discernible labels or textual markers on the structures.
- **Fence**:
- Rust-colored metal with vertical bars and decorative finials.
- No text or signage attached.
- **People**:
- One individual (gender unclear) near the fence, gesturing toward the pillar.
- Another person near scaffolding, wearing casual clothing.
- **Environment**:
- Clear blue sky, no clouds.
- Scaffolding made of wooden poles and metal braces.
### Detailed Analysis
- **Pillar**: The pillar’s design suggests it may have been part of a larger monument, possibly a stupa, obelisk, or commemorative structure. Its weathered surface indicates significant age.
- **Ruins**: The stone blocks and arches are inconsistent in size and alignment, implying gradual deterioration over time. No visible inscriptions or carvings are legible.
- **Fence**: The fence’s placement around the pillar suggests it is a protected artifact, likely to prevent public interference.
- **People**: The visitor’s gesture implies interest in the pillar, while the worker’s presence near scaffolding highlights active preservation efforts.
### Key Observations
1. **Preservation Context**: The scaffolding and fenced-off area indicate the site is under restoration or conservation.
2. **Historical Significance**: The pillar’s design and the ruins’ architecture suggest a site of cultural or religious importance, possibly from a medieval or ancient civilization.
3. **Lack of Text**: No inscriptions, labels, or textual markers are visible on the pillar, ruins, or surrounding structures.
### Interpretation
The image captures a moment of historical preservation, where a monumental pillar and its surrounding ruins are being safeguarded. The absence of textual elements on the structures themselves implies that any historical context or inscriptions may have been lost to time or erosion. The presence of visitors and workers underscores the site’s dual role as a cultural heritage landmark and an active restoration project. The clear sky and bright lighting emphasize the site’s openness and accessibility, contrasting with the aged, weathered materials of the ruins.
**Note**: No textual information (labels, axis titles, legends, or data) is present in the image. The analysis is based solely on visual elements and contextual inference.
</details>
The Delhi pillar is 7 m high and weighs 6.5 tons. It is 98% pure iron with a high Phosphorous content to make it rust resistant. It is generally believed that no other country had the capability to
produce an iron mass of this size and purity till the industrial revolution of 18 th century. The Dhar pillar had a weight of a little more than 7 tons and almost twice the height of the Delhi pillar, but is now broken into three pieces. It also has a high Phosphorous content for rust resistance like the Delhi pillar [7].
Equally important was the discovery of steel production in Deccan by the carbonization of iron around 600 BC [3]. It was globally exported throughout the period of ancient Indian history. There was a close triangular link between Alchemy, Metallurgy and Aurveda. Alchemy had two branches called Deha Siddhi and Loha Siddhi. The former dealt with the production of various Bhasmas of Aurvedic medicine, while the latter dealt with the chemicals used in metal smelting and production of special quality metals like steel. The latter in turn was closely connected with the sharp edged instruments used in Aurvedic surgery. It is said that the surgical instruments of Susruta were fabricated with Deccan steel. These three sciences had a synergetic growth through the period of ancient history up to the 9 th century.
The state of Indian metallurgy after 1000 AD has been discussed by Prof. B. Prakash [8]. It saw a rapid decline during 11 th -12 th century as Ghaznavid and Ghorian invaders destroyed the iron producing industry and took away many thousands of skilled workers as slaves to bolster their own armament production. However, during the Mughal period a subaltern culture of metallurgy was revived for large scale production of armaments and construction of large cannons, some weighing 20-40 tons. With some interruptions the Deccan steel export to Arab countries continued into the medieval period for making quality armaments. The famous Damascus sword was made with Deccan steel [3]. But both of them had declined by the 18 th century. The death blow to the Indian metal industry was dealt by the British Colonial Government policy of shipping iron ore to British plants at the cost of the Indian foundries.
## Ayurveda:
The Indian Academy of Sciences has brought out a vision document on Aurvedic Biology by Prof. M. S. Valiathan, who is a prominent cardiac surgeon and discoverer of a famous heart valve, past president of Indian National Science Academy, past vicechancellor of Manipal University and presently a national professor there. Prof. Valiathan is also an authority on Ayurvedic Biology not only as a theoretical scholar but one actively engaged in experiments to scientifically test the efficacy of various Ayurvedic procedures as well. Therefore my discussion of this section will be largely based on the material of this document [9]. In fact I shall be quoting many passages from this document, risking the charge of plagiarism, because I could not have put them any better.
According to Valiathan [9], the Samhita phase from 1 st to 9 th century AD is regarded as the golden age of Ayurveda. It had three major texts called the Brihadtrayi. 1) Caraka Samhita (1 st century) is a redaction by Caraka of a treatise composed by Agnives several centuries earlier. 2) On the other hand, Susruta Samhita (2 nd -3 rd century) is a redaction by Nagarjuna of the surgical treatise of Susruta, who is said to have lived around 700 BC. 3) Finally, Astanga Samgraha and Astanga Hrdaya (8 th -9 th century) are composed by Vagbhata.
Caraka's redaction was so highly creative that the new text came to be acclaimed as Caraka Samhita. Here Ayurveda got its name for the first time, and it moved from a faith-based to a reason-based platform. It was encyclopedic in the coverage of medicines, and recognized as the last word in internal medicine. It was translated into Persian, Arabic and Tibetan within 2-3 centuries and spread its influence to central Asia, where Bower manuscript of 400 AD with numerous quotes from Caraka was discovered in 1890. Bower was an intelligence officer of British Indian army, who discovered this manuscript written on Parchment in Brahmi script with some
natives of central Asia and brought it to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta [3]. Caraka Samhita was translated into English in 19 th century. Its popularity continues in the 21 st century, when a digital version was prepared by Prof. Yamashita of Kyoto University [9].
Susruta's name is forever associated with rhinoplasty (nose repair), the only surgical procedure from India to have won global recognition in three millennia! Susruta Samhita is a comprehensive medical treatise with heavy surgical orientation, dealing with surgical procedures, instruments, care of trauma, medications etc. Drawings of some surgical procedures and instruments are shown in Figs 4-7 [9]. Compared to Caraka Samhita it has simpler language and lower emphasis on the philosophical dimensions of medical practice. This, along with its precise drawings of surgical procedures and instruments, suggest the compiler Nagarjuna was more likely to be a hands-on experimentalist rather than a theoretical scholar. Many believe him to be the Buddhist alchemist of that name described by Hsuan-tsang; but there is no definitive evidence for this [3]. Susruta Samhita enjoyed great authority even beyond the Indian borders because it was translated into Arabic under the Caliphate, when Indian physicians were believed to have lived in Baghdad [9].
There is little doubt that the Susruta and Carak Samhitas were taught at Nalanda; and the large number of students from Tibet, China and other east Asian countries would have carried home their copies and translations. Transfer of knowledge was also facilitated by Indian teachers accompanying these home-bound disciples. Even today, several texts in medicine, philosophy etc, which are no longer available in Sanskrit original, are available in their Chinese and Tibetan translations. What the barbarians destroyed in India had a resurrection in other countries [9]. The last sentence refers to the destruction of Nalanda by Bakhtiar Khilzi around 1200 AD.
Fig. 4Plastic repair of nose
<details>
<summary>Image 4 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Diagram: Stylized Facial Features Comparison
### Overview
The image is a black-and-white line drawing depicting two stylized human faces side by side. Each face is rendered with exaggerated, abstract features, emphasizing specific anatomical elements. The left face appears more "normal" with closed eyes, a defined nose, and a neutral mouth, while the right face exhibits distorted proportions, including an elongated mouth, a fragmented nose, and a shaded area suggesting a different texture or state.
### Components/Axes
- **Left Face**:
- **Eyes**: Closed, with detailed eyelashes.
- **Nose**: Standard, with two nostrils.
- **Mouth**: Neutral, with a defined lip outline.
- **Brows**: Thin, arched above the eyes.
- **Right Face**:
- **Eyes**: Closed, with elongated lashes.
- **Nose**: Fragmented, with a broken or abstract shape.
- **Mouth**: Elongated, with a shaded, textured interior (possibly indicating a different material or state).
- **Brows**: Similar to the left face but slightly more pronounced.
- **Stylistic Elements**:
- **Shading**: The right face’s mouth has a crosshatched pattern, suggesting depth or a non-standard texture.
- **Line Work**: Both faces use bold, continuous lines for outlines, with minimal internal detail.
### Detailed Analysis
- **Left Face**:
- No textual labels or annotations.
- Features are proportionally balanced, with no shading or textural variation.
- **Right Face**:
- The nose is depicted as a broken or abstract shape, possibly symbolizing fragmentation or distortion.
- The mouth is elongated and shaded, which could imply a state of tension, transformation, or surrealism.
- The shading on the mouth is concentrated in the lower half, creating a contrast with the upper lip.
### Key Observations
- **Contrast**: The left face represents a "normal" or static state, while the right face suggests a dynamic or altered condition.
- **Abstraction**: The right face’s features (e.g., fragmented nose, shaded mouth) are intentionally exaggerated, deviating from realistic anatomy.
- **Symmetry**: Both faces share similar eye and brow structures, but the right face’s nose and mouth are distinctly different.
### Interpretation
The image likely serves as a metaphorical or artistic representation of emotional or psychological states. The left face could symbolize calmness, stability, or neutrality, while the right face might represent stress, transformation, or a surreal experience. The shaded mouth on the right face could indicate hidden emotions, tension, or a "mask" of composure. The fragmented nose might symbolize a loss of identity or a breakdown in perception.
**Note**: The image contains no textual data, numerical values, or explicit labels. All interpretations are based on visual symbolism and stylistic choices.
</details>
Described by Susruta: a pedicle flap from the cheek was used; the eighteenth century practitioner in Pune took the flap from forehead
<details>
<summary>Image 5 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Diagram: Plastic Repair of Ear Lobe
### Overview
The image is a black-and-white technical diagram illustrating two stages of ear lobe repair. It includes labeled anatomical sketches and explanatory text.
### Components/Axes
- **Left Illustration (i.)**: A normal, intact ear lobe with defined anatomical contours (helix, antihelix, lobule).
- **Right Illustration (ii.)**: A repaired ear lobe showing a suture line (dashed line) extending from the base of the lobe to the earlobe margin.
- **Text Elements**:
- Title: "Plastic repair of ear lobe" (bold, centered).
- Caption: "was recommended by Susruta when the ear lobe was destroyed by infection following the piercing of ear" (italicized, centered).
- **Labels**:
- "i." (below left illustration).
- "ii." (below right illustration).
### Detailed Analysis
- **Left Illustration (i.)**:
- Depicts a standard ear lobe with no visible damage or repair.
- Anatomical features include the outer rim (helix), inner curvature (antihelix), and lobule.
- **Right Illustration (ii.)**:
- Shows a repaired ear lobe with a suture line (dashed line) bridging the gap caused by tissue loss.
- The suture extends from the base of the lobe (near the face) to the earlobe margin, suggesting a tension-free closure.
- **Textual Context**:
- The caption references Susruta, an ancient Indian surgeon, indicating historical precedent for the repair technique.
- The repair is described as addressing tissue destruction from infection post-piercing.
### Key Observations
- The diagram emphasizes the transition from a damaged ear lobe (implied by the caption) to a repaired state via suturing.
- No numerical data or quantitative values are present; the focus is on anatomical and procedural representation.
- The suture line in (ii.) is the only explicit indication of the repair method.
### Interpretation
- The diagram serves as a visual guide for surgical techniques in ear lobe reconstruction, highlighting the importance of tension-free closure to prevent recurrence of infection or deformity.
- The reference to Susruta underscores the longevity of this approach, suggesting its validation in historical medical practices.
- The absence of color or additional annotations limits the ability to infer material properties (e.g., suture type) or patient-specific variables.
- The simplicity of the diagram prioritizes clarity over detail, making it suitable for educational or procedural reference.
</details>
<details>
<summary>Image 6 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Diagram: Pliers Tool Variations
### Overview
The image displays six black-and-white line drawings of pliers arranged in a 2x3 grid. Each drawing represents a distinct variation of pliers, focusing on differences in handle design, jaw shape, and overall structure. No text, labels, or numerical data are present in the image.
### Components/Axes
- **Handles**: All pliers feature symmetrical, curved handles with a central pivot point. Variations include:
- Top row: Handles with slight curvature (left), pronounced curvature (middle), and straight alignment (right).
- Bottom row: Handles with moderate curvature (left), minimal curvature (middle), and ornate, looping designs (right).
- **Jaws**: All pliers have open jaws with a standard cutting edge. No variations in jaw shape are observed.
- **Pivot**: A small circular pivot is visible at the junction of the handles and jaws in all drawings.
### Detailed Analysis
- **Top Row (Left to Right)**:
1. **Slight Curvature**: Handles curve gently outward from the pivot, forming a subtle "C" shape.
2. **Pronounced Curvature**: Handles curve sharply, creating a more pronounced "U" shape.
3. **Straight Alignment**: Handles are nearly straight, with minimal curvature.
- **Bottom Row (Left to Right)**:
1. **Moderate Curvature**: Handles curve moderately, balancing between the top row's slight and pronounced variations.
2. **Minimal Curvature**: Handles are almost straight, with only a slight inward curve near the pivot.
3. **Ornate Looping**: Handles feature intricate, looping designs at the ends, suggesting a decorative or specialized function.
### Key Observations
- **Symmetry**: All pliers are symmetrical, with identical left and right handles.
- **Jaw Consistency**: No variation in jaw design is present; all jaws are open and identical in shape.
- **Pivot Uniformity**: The pivot point is consistently depicted as a small circle in all drawings.
### Interpretation
The diagram appears to illustrate ergonomic or functional variations in plier design, likely for technical documentation or instructional purposes. The differences in handle curvature may indicate:
- **Ergonomic Adaptations**: Varying handle shapes could reduce user fatigue during prolonged use.
- **Specialized Applications**: The ornate looping design in the bottom-right pliers might serve a niche purpose, such as gripping irregular objects.
- **Aesthetic vs. Functional Trade-offs**: The straight-handled pliers (top-right) may prioritize simplicity, while the curved designs emphasize comfort or grip.
No numerical data, trends, or anomalies are present. The image focuses solely on visual representation of tool variations without contextual or quantitative information.
</details>
Fig.6 Instruments-blunt(Yantras) Afewfromthe100bluntinstrumentsofSusruta
<details>
<summary>Image 7 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
## Diagram: Fig. 7 Instruments – sharp (Sastras)
### Overview
The image is a black-and-white line diagram titled "Fig. 7 Instruments – sharp (Sastras)" with a subtitle: "A few from the 20 sharp instruments of Susruta." It depicts five distinct surgical instruments, labeled as "sharp" tools, likely referencing ancient medical practices. The instruments are arranged vertically in a single column, with minimal contextual background.
### Components/Axes
- **Title**: "Fig. 7 Instruments – sharp (Sastras)" (centered at the top).
- **Subtitle**: "A few from the 20 sharp instruments of Susruta" (centered below the title).
- **Instruments**: Five line-drawn tools, each with a handle and a sharp tip, labeled as "sharp" (Sastras). No axes, legends, or numerical scales are present.
### Detailed Analysis
1. **Instrument 1 (Leftmost)**:
- Shape: Spoon-like with a rounded, concave tip.
- Handle: Straight, tapering slightly toward the base.
- Function: Likely for scooping or probing.
2. **Instrument 2 (Second from Left)**:
- Shape: Long, slender, and sharply pointed.
- Handle: Curved ergonomic grip.
- Function: Precision probing or incision.
3. **Instrument 3 (Center)**:
- Shape: Double-edged blade with a hinge mechanism (suggesting a foldable design).
- Handle: Short, straight.
- Function: Scalpel or cutting tool.
4. **Instrument 4 (Second from Right)**:
- Shape: Curved hook with a sharp inner edge.
- Handle: Straight, with a slight bend near the base.
- Function: Retraction or extraction.
5. **Instrument 5 (Rightmost)**:
- Shape: Curved blade with a serrated edge.
- Handle: Straight, with a flared base.
- Function: Cutting or sawing.
### Key Observations
- All instruments share a common theme of sharpness, emphasizing their surgical purpose.
- The designs reflect ergonomic considerations (e.g., curved handles for grip).
- The subtitle implies these are a subset of 20 instruments attributed to Susruta, an ancient Indian surgeon.
### Interpretation
The diagram highlights the diversity of surgical tools used in Susruta’s medical system, showcasing specialized designs for probing, cutting, and retraction. The absence of numerical data or legends suggests the focus is on anatomical accuracy rather than quantitative analysis. The instruments’ simplicity and sharpness underscore the precision required in ancient surgical practices. The reference to "20 sharp instruments" implies a comprehensive toolkit, reflecting Susruta’s advanced understanding of anatomy and surgery.
</details>
Acharya P. C. Ray estimated the date of composition of Astanga Samgraha and Astanga Hrdaya by Vagbhata to be 8 th -9 th century, when Ayurveda was on the threshold of stagnation [2]. These texts accept the authority of Caraka and Susruta in no uncertain terms and present their teachings in a simple and abridged manner for average students. Astanga Hrdaya accomplished this objective admirably and became a popular favourite, thanks to the gift of poetic excellence that no other text could claim. After Vagbhata, the springs of creativity ran dry and a long phase of stagnation ensued for a thousand years in the history of Ayurveda [9].
Of course some important texts of Ayurveda appeared during this phase along with many dictionaries and commentaries on earlier texts. But there were no more Carakas and Susrutas, nor the power-houses of learning like Nalanda. The preference of the Muslim rulers for Unani hastened the decline of Ayurveda. But the malady had roots running deeper in the social history of India, because the surgical techniques of Susruta had more or less disappeared from the mainstream of Ayurveda already by the time of Vagbhata. Cadaveric dissection was no more mentioned; and the training of disciples did not include exercises on cucumber, jackfruit and animal skin etc for learning incision, extraction, scraping and other surgical procedures [9].
So the Afghan/Turkish conquest of India and destruction of Nalanda around 1200 AD were not the causes but rather the consequences of the decline in Indian science and civilization that had started at least a couple of centuries earlier. Mahmud of Ghazni raided India 17 times during 1000-1027 AD over a wide front from Mathura to Somnath in Saurastra, destroying its monuments and industries, plundering its wealth and taking many thousands of its skilled workers as slaves. Yet we did not learn our lessons and put our house in order. Al-Beruni was a central Asian scientist/scholar, who came to India in 1017 at the behest of Mahmud of Ghazni and spent thirteen years travelling through this
country to write a comprehensive book on the nation and its people. His account is generally considered to be candid but objective. An extract from Al-Beruni's account of the Indian people is quoted below [10].
'The Hindus believe that there is no country but theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs. They are haughty, foolishly vain, self-conceited and stolid. They are by nature niggardly in communicating that which they know, and they take greatest possible care to withhold it from men of another caste among their own people, still much more, of course, from any foreigner….. Their haughtiness is such that, if you tell them of any science or scholar in Khorasan or Persia, they will think you to be both an ignoramus and a liar. If they traveled and mixed with other nations, they would soon change their mind, for their ancestors were not as narrow minded as the present generation is.'
The last line of this passage is very significant, because the nation had assimilated the Saka and Kusana conquerors into the Indian civilization in 2 nd -3 rd century AD. It had also spread the Indian civilization throughout south-east Asia through travelling tradesmen without any bloodshed. And it had spread Buddhism over most of Asia through exchange of scholars. But this vibrant nation with a pan-Asian outreach had folded up into its narrow regional, caste and sub-caste groups by 1000 AD. Moreover, lofty institutions like Nalanda had weakened considerably, because there was no empire to support them anymore. So it became an easy prey for external aggressors.
## Surviving Subcultures of Surgical and Metallurgical Skills:
The surgical procedures which disappeared from the main stream of society survived however among castes, considered low in the social hierarchy. Susruta's nose repair is an interesting example. Barring a perfunctory reference, it received no serious attention in the Aurvedic texts; nor was it performed by reputed Vaidyas. Its
survival was 'discovered' accidentally by British observers in Pune towards the end of 18 th century [9].
Pune Nose Repair Episode: Dr. Scott, a sympathetic British doctor residing in Mumbai, had heard from one Capt. Irvine in 1793 about the practice among 'gentoos of putting new noses on people who have had them cut off' presumably for some criminal offence. He assured Dr. Scott that all the employees of the East India company in Pune were witness to the operation which gave them a 'pretty good nose'! Dr. Scott then wrote to Mr. Findlay, the company surgeon in Pune, to ascertain the veracity of this report because such an operation was unknown in Europe. Mr. Findlay sent a detailed report on the basis of eyewitness observation by himself and Mr. Cruso on 1 st January 1794. The report described how a 'koomar' caste man had borrowed an old razor for this occasion, dissected a flap from the forehead of the patient with much composure, freshened the edges of the nasal defect and applied the flap there on by rotation with a cement 'without the aid of stitches, sticking plaster or bandages'. The flap healed and 'an adhesion had taken place seemingly in every part'. It was a report of this procedure, published in the 'Gentleman's Magazine' of London in 1794, which caught the attention of a surgeon, Dr. J. C. Caprue, FRS. He performed the operation for the first time in the West and published a full length paper on 'An account of two successful operation for restoring a lost nose from the integuments of the forehead' in 1816.
Other Surgical Skills: A similar eyewitness report on Susruta's couching for cataract was given by Dr. Ekambaram of Coimbatore in 1916. He found that the procedure was done by iterant Mohammedan Vaidyas who followed the steps of Susruta's method [9]. Note that the procedures in Pune and Coimbatore were done not by Ayurvedic physicians but by illiterate men, who had learned the techniques from an earlier generation. Treatment of fracture by bonesetters, child delivery by dais and many other
procedures involving 'dirtying of hand' were relegated to lower caste persons, who did not understand their anatomical basis or rationale. It was as if the nation's brain had been decoupled from its hand, which ensured that there could never be innovation based on true understanding.
Metallurgical Skills: There is also anecdotal evidence showing the survival of a subculture of metallurgical skills among the lower castes [9, 11]. On the request of the Govt. of Bengal in 1828, James Franklin, FRS, made a thorough study of the ore, charcoal and furnaces used by the natives of Central India for making iron. He wrote 'the smelting furnaces, though crude in appearance, are nevertheless very exact in the interior proportions, and it has often surprised me to see men, who are unquestionably ignorant of their principle, construct them with such precision'. He went on to describe in detail the geometrical and practical construction of the furnace, the construction and use of bellows, construction of two refineries for each furnace, mode of smelting and refining etc. On getting the product evaluated at the Sagar mint he wrote ' the bar iron was of the most excellent quality, possessing all the desirable properties of malleability, ductility at different temperatures and of tenacity of which I think it cannot be surpassed by the best Swedish iron'. Though the workmen could not answer Franklin's questions or explain the procedures used for hundreds of years by their forefathers, he commented that the 'original plan of this singular furnace must have been the work of advanced intelligence' [11]. In fact this was the relic of a civilization that had produced the iron pillars of Delhi/Vidisha in 400 AD and Dhar in 1000 AD. Actually Vidisha and Dhar are both located in Central India, i.e. the same geographical region as the abovementioned workmen of a much later period.
## Conclusion:
The above anecdotes make poignant stories. But what lesson do we learn from them? Should they make us happy or sad? Let me
conclude by answering these questions in the words of Prof. Valiathan and those of his inspiration, Acharya P. C. Ray, as quoted by him.
Reflections of M. S. Valiathan: The workmen doing the nose repair in Pune, cataract couching in Coimbatore and ore smelting in Jabalpur were condemned to illiteracy, low social status, poor selfesteem and little hope of self advancement. Since this grim prospect claimed hundreds of thousands of citizens, who used their hands to make a living, ruin could be the only destination of their nation [9].
Reflections of P. C. Ray: According to Susruta, the dissection of dead bodies is a sine qua non (indispensible) to the students of surgery, and this high authority lays particular stress on knowledge gained from experiments and observations. But Manu would have none of it. According to Manu, the very touch of corpse is enough to contaminate the sacred person of a Brahmin. Thus we find shortly after Vagbhata, the handling of a lancet was discouraged and anatomy and surgery fell to disuse and became, to all intents and purposes, lost sciences for the Hindus. It was considered equally undignified to sweat away at the metal furnaces. The sciences being thus relegated to the lower castes, and the professions made hereditary, a certain degree of fineness, delicacy and deftness in manipulation was no doubt secured. But this was accomplished at a terrible cost. The intellectual portion of the community being thus withdrawn from active participation in these sciences, the how and why of phenomenon - the coordination of cause and effect - were lost sight of. The spirit of enquiry gradually died out among a nation, naturally prone to speculation and metaphysical subtleties, and India for once bade adieu to experimental and inductive sciences. Her soil was made morally unfit for the birth of a Boyle, a Descartes, or a Newton; and her very name was expunged from the map of the scientific world for a time [2].
Under these circumstances, India's rout at the East-West encounter of the 18 th century was a foregone conclusion [9].
Acknowledgement: The author acknowledges partial support from the senior scientist fellowship of the Indian National Science Academy.
## References:
1. M. K. Pal, Key Note Address : Proc. National Symp. on Scientific Contributions of Samanta Chandra Sekhar to Astronomy, Allied Publishers (2006).
2. P. C. Ray: History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Indian Chemical Society, Calcutta (1956).
3. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia on the internet.
4. Google Images - https://www.google.co.in/
5. http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0769237.html
6. M. N. Vahia: DNA daily news paper, 9 March 2014.
7. R. Balasubramanian, Indian J. History Sci. 37, 115 (2002).
8. B. Prakash, Indian J. History Sci. 46, 381(2011).
9. M. S. Valiathan: Towards Ayurvedic Biology, A Decadal Vision Document of Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore (2006).
10. 10.http://www.shunya.net/Text/Blog/AlBeruniIndia.html.
11. Dharampal: Indian Science and Technology in the 18 th Century, Academy of Gandhian Studies, Hyderabad (1983).