## Role of Experiments in the Progress of Science: Lessons from our History
D. P. Roy
Homi Bhabha Centre for Science Education,
Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, V. N. Purav Marg, Mumbai - 400088, India Abstract
I shall discuss the history of Indian astronomy, Aurveda (life science), chemistry and metallurgy to illustrate how downgrading experiments from scientific learning lead to the decline of ancient Indian science and civilization. We shall see that in the glorious period of ancient Indian civilization, lasting up to the 9th century, there was close interaction between experimental investigations and theoretical analyses in each of these sciences. This was further augmented by two-way interactions with the other advanced civilizations of that time. But both these interactions came to an end around 9th century, leading to the stagnation and decline of Indian science and civilization over the next thousand years. This was the cause rather than the consequence of its subjugation by external invaders, though it was no doubt aggravated by the latter. 1
Key Words: Experiments, Ancient Indian Science, Alchemy, Astronomy, Aurveda, Metallurgy
## Introduction:
Let me confess from the beginning that the subject of this article is not the subject of my research. But it is a subject of my concern as an Indian scientist. And I shall present it largely in the words of some Indian scientists of very high esteem, who were deeply concerned about this matter. My only role is one of compilation and occasional elaboration of their comments.
The following sections discuss the ancient Indian chemistry, astronomy, metallurgy and Aurveda in that order. In each case there was close interaction between experimental investigations and theoretical analyses during the glorious period of its history,
1 This article is dedicated to the memory of the famous nuclear physicist and erudite scholar, Prof. Manoj Kumar Pal, who passed away on 3 March 2016.
lasting up to the 9th century. We shall also see that for the three technological sciences of chemistry, metallurgy and Ayurveda, the experimental developments were closely interlinked to one another, so that all the three had a synergetic growth during this period. Moreover, there was a healthy interaction with other advanced civilizations of that time, which particularly influenced the advances in astronomy. However, all these interactions came to an end towards the 9 th century, leading to the stagnation and decline of Indian science and civilization over the next thousand years. By the 19 th century the only vestiges of that glorious civilization left was in the form of relics like the Delhi iron pillar and the anecdotal evidences of highly skilled surgery and metallurgy, performed by some illiterate Indian practitioners of these trades. This had profoundly stirred the conscience of the famous scientists of Indian renaissance like Acharya P. C. Ray and Prof. Meghnad Saha, as we shall see below.
## Chemistry:
In his address as the Sectional President of physics and mathematics of the Indian National Science Congress (1926), Meghnad Saha quoted the following lines from a 9 th century Sanskrit text on chemistry, called 'Rasendra Chintamani' by Dhuduknath, which was brought to his notice by his teacher Acharya P. C. Ray.
'I have heard much from the lips of savants, I have seen many formulae well-established in scriptures, but I am not recording any which I have not done myself. I am fearlessly recording only those that I have carried out before my elders with my own hand. Only they are to be regarded as real teachers who can show by experiments what they teach. They are the deserving pupils, who can actually perform them after having learned from their teachers. The rest are merely stage actors.'
Why was this 9 th century chemist recording his views on the role of experiments in such strong words? The reason was that by that time the downgrading of experiments from scientific learning and the consequent stagnation of science had already begun in India. Meghnad Saha and P. C. Ray were not only great scientists, but they were also great stalwarts of the Indian renaissance. As such they had a deep understanding of the ancient Indian civilization in its merits as well as its mistakes and limitations. So they were highlighting the latter to the younger generations so that they can learn from these mistakes and overcome the limitations. The definition of stage actors in science was taken quite seriously by Saha at the time of delivering his address; and he issued a warning apprehending that they could vitiate the progress of new science in India [1]. I shall come back to this point and Acharya P. C. Ray's reflections on it at the end of this article. But for now let us continue with the history of Indian chemistry after the 9 th century.
According to Acharya P. C. Ray [2], Indian chemistry continued to develop for a few centuries after this mainly as the empirical science of alchemy. Alchemy was shunned by Brahmins, but practiced by men of all other castes. There were many pioneers in alchemy; and an outstanding figure named Nagarjuna has been respectfully mentioned in Alberuni's India of early 11 th century to have lived a century earlier. But there could be several Nagarjunas in history, since Hsuan-tsang in 7 th century refers to a famous Buddhist alchemist by that name to have lived 5-6 centuries earlier! Alchemy was taught in the monasteries of Nalanda, Vikramasila and Udantapura till their destruction around 1200 AD by Bakhtiar Khilzi. After this the alchemists fled to Tibet and Deccan [3]. P. C. Ray traces back the development of chemistry in India to this subaltern culture of alchemy, which survived through the medieval period, away from the intellectual strata of society [2].
## Astronomy:
The Calendar Reforms Committee, set up under Meghnad Saha soon after independence, made a thorough review of the three periods of Indian astronomy - i.e. Vedic (→1300 BC), Vedanga (1300 BC - 400 AD) and Siddhanta (400 - 900 AD) periods. According to this review, during the Vedanga period the emphasis had shifted from collecting data from experimental observations to achieving more computational precision. But the Sakas and Kusanas brought the contemporaneous knowledge of Astronomy from Bactria to north-west India. This latest exposure initiated the great spurt of activities towards the end of this period by augmenting the experimentally observed database. This ushered in the Siddhanta era [1]. Surya Siddhanta is assigned to 3 rd century AD, followed by a quick succession of luminaries : Aryabhatta and Varahamihira (~ 500 AD), Brahmagupta and Bhaskara I (~ 600 AD), Lalla (8 th century). Aryabhatta authored Aryabhatiya and a revised version of Surya Siddhanta. He also had a profound influence on the development of Islamic astronomy. So there was a two-way interaction with other cultures during the Siddhanta era. Evidently the interacting cultures all benefited from this, as they could learn from each other's strong points. The following two passages summarize the influence of other cultures on Indian astronomy and that of the Indian astronomy on other cultures [3].
The Yavanajataka was translated from Greek to Sanskrit by Yavaneswara during 2 nd century AD under Saka king Rudradaman. His capital Ujjain was the 'Greenwich of Indian Astronomy'. Later in the 6 th century, Romaka Siddhanta and Paulisa Siddhanta, meaning the treatises of Romans and Paul, were two of the five treatises of Varahamihira called Pancha-Siddhanta. He wrote 'The Greeks, though impure, must be honoured since they were trained in sciences and therein excelled others'. Similarly Gargi-Samhita says 'The Yavanas are Barbarians, yet the science of astronomy originated with them and for this they must be revered like Gods'.
These statements illustrate the positive attitude of Indian astronomers to external influence during its glorious era.
On the other hand, Indian astronomy reached China with the expansion of Buddhism during the Han dynasty (25-220 AD). Further translation of Indian works on astronomy was completed in China during the Three Kingdoms era (220-265 AD). However, most detailed incorporation of Indian astronomy occurred only during the Tang dynasty (618-907 AD). Arabs adopted the sine function (inherited from Indian mathematics) instead of chords of arc used in Hellenistic mathematics. Another Indian influence was an approximate formula used for timekeeping by Muslim astronomers. Indian astronomy had an influence on European astronomy via Arabic translations. Muhammad al-Fazari's Great Sindhind, which was based on the Surya Siddhanta and the works of Brahmagupta, was translated into Latin in 1126.
There was a gradual decline in Siddhanta astronomy after the 9 th century. Although there were great exponents like Bhaskara II (12 th century), Nilakantha's Kerala School (15-16 th century) and Samanta Chandra Sekhar (19 th century), they were few and far between. Let me quote a few lines from the keynote address to a national symposium on Samata Chandra Sekhar by the famous nuclear physicist and ex-director of Saha Institute of Nuclear Physics, Prof. M. K. Pal [1].
'The last exponent of Indian Siddhanta astronomy, Samanta Chandra Sekhar, lived in Orissa from 1835 to 1904. He constructed his own instruments, acquired great skill in using them for accurate observations of sun, moon, planets and stars. When he found by repeated observations that the measured positions in most cases do not agree with results computed using the famous Siddhantas, he boldly concluded that the latter are in error, not his experimental determinations. He wrote his findings in Siddhanta Darpana on palm leaves in Sanskrit using Oriya script. Prof. J. C. Ray of
Ravenshaw College, Cuttack, arranged to publish it in Devanagari script through a Calcutta press thirty years later in 1899.'
The most glaring error of the Indian classical Siddhantas is the prediction of the summer and winter solstices (the latter called Makara Samkranti), and the autumn and vernal equinoxes (the latter called Vishuva Samkranti). They were first determined using the simple devise called Gnomon (Sanku in India), in which the direction and length of the shadow of a vertical rod were measured to determine the cardinal directions and time (Fig 1).
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<summary>Image 1 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Diagram: The Gnomon and its Shadow
### Overview
The image is a diagram illustrating the relationship between a gnomon (a vertical rod), the sun, and its resulting shadow. It depicts a simplified model of how a gnomon casts a shadow based on the sun's position.
### Components/Axes
The diagram consists of the following components:
* **Sun:** Represented as a yellow, radiating circle in the top-left corner.
* **Gnomon:** A dark red, vertical rectangular rod labeled "Gnomon" in red text on the left side.
* **Shadow:** A green line labeled "Ombre" in black text, extending from the base of the gnomon to the right.
* **Sun Rays:** Dotted lines representing the path of sunlight from the sun to the gnomon and its shadow.
* **Caption:** A white box in the top-right corner containing the text "Fig 1. The Gnomon and its shadow [4]."
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
The diagram shows a simple geometric relationship. The sun's rays are depicted as straight lines. The gnomon is positioned vertically, and the shadow extends horizontally to the right. The angle between the sun's rays and the gnomon creates the shadow.
The text within the white box reads: "Fig 1. The Gnomon and its shadow [4]." This indicates that this is Figure 1 and the source is referenced as "[4]".
The label "Gnomon" is positioned to the left of the vertical rod. The label "Ombre" (French for "shadow") is positioned below the green shadow line.
### Key Observations
The diagram is a conceptual illustration rather than a precise measurement. It does not include any numerical data or scales. The diagram's purpose is to visually explain the basic principle of how a gnomon creates a shadow.
### Interpretation
The diagram demonstrates the fundamental principle behind sundials and other timekeeping devices that rely on the position of the sun and the length/direction of a shadow. The gnomon acts as the object casting the shadow, and the shadow's position changes throughout the day as the sun moves across the sky. The diagram is a simplified representation, omitting factors like the Earth's rotation and atmospheric effects. The inclusion of the French word "Ombre" suggests a potential origin or influence from French scientific or historical contexts related to sundials or gnomonics. The reference "[4]" indicates that this diagram is likely part of a larger work and that further information can be found in the source cited as number 4.
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The minimum shadow length marks midday and its direction the cardinal north-south direction. In tropical regions the largest midday shadow length along north (south) marks winter (summer) solstice. And the two mid-points in time between the two solstices mark the two equinoxes. At the time of this calibration around 400 AD Helial (Sun synchronous) rising of the constellation Capricorn
(Makara) matched with the winter solstice of 21-22 December and that of Cancer (Karkata) matched with the summer solstice of 2122 June. That is why the southern and northern tropics were named tropics of Capricorn (Makara kranti) and Cancer (Karkata kranti), while the equinoxes matched with the vertical alignment of sun over the equator (Vishuva rekha). However, precession of the earth's rotation axis over the past 1600 years has resulted in a 23 days gap between the celestial and terrestrial markers. Evidently the terrestrial events like the change of season and harvest of crops are determined by the true solstice and equinox times corresponding to the terrestrial markers rather than the celestial ones. This is a glaring example of how blind following of the ancient scriptures without experimental recalibration leads to wrong solstice and equinox times.
Fig 2. Present solar alignment of different constellations over the year [5].
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<summary>Image 2 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Diagram: Earth's Orbit and Zodiac Constellations
### Overview
The image is a diagram illustrating the Earth's orbit around the Sun, overlaid with the twelve zodiac constellations. It depicts the Sun at the center and the Earth's orbital path, with markers indicating the positions of Earth in January, May, and September. The constellations are positioned around the orbit, representing their apparent location in the sky at different times of the year.
### Components/Axes
* **Central Element:** A bright yellow circle labeled "Sun".
* **Orbital Path:** A light blue circular path labeled "Earth's Orbit".
* **Earth Positions:** Three black circles representing Earth's position at different times of the year, labeled "January", "May", and "September". These are positioned along the orbital path.
* **Constellations:** Twelve constellations are depicted around the orbit, labeled as follows:
* Capricorn
* Aquarius
* Pisces
* Aries
* Taurus
* Gemini
* Cancer
* Leo
* Virgo
* Libra
* Scorpio
* Sagittarius
* **Ecliptic:** A curved line labeled "Ecliptic" is shown near the bottom of the diagram.
* **Arrows:** White arrows indicate the direction of Earth's orbit.
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
The diagram shows the Earth orbiting the Sun in a counter-clockwise direction (as viewed from above). The positions of Earth in January, May, and September are approximately 120 degrees apart.
* **January:** Earth is positioned near the constellation Capricorn.
* **May:** Earth is positioned near the constellation Taurus.
* **September:** Earth is positioned near the constellation Libra.
The constellations are arranged in their traditional zodiacal order around the orbit. The "Ecliptic" line appears to represent the apparent path of the Sun across the sky throughout the year, as seen from Earth.
### Key Observations
The diagram visually represents the relationship between Earth's orbit and the apparent positions of the constellations. It demonstrates how the Earth's movement around the Sun causes us to see different constellations at different times of the year. The diagram is a simplified representation, as the actual orbits are elliptical and the constellations are not uniformly spaced along the ecliptic.
### Interpretation
This diagram is a visual aid for understanding the basic principles of astronomy and the zodiac. It illustrates how the Earth's annual orbit around the Sun creates the illusion that the Sun is moving through the constellations of the zodiac. The positions of Earth at January, May, and September provide a snapshot of the Earth's location relative to the constellations at those times. The diagram is a conceptual model, and does not represent the precise astronomical positions of the Earth and constellations. The diagram is a simplified representation of a complex system, but it effectively conveys the fundamental relationship between Earth's orbit, the Sun, and the zodiac constellations. The diagram does not contain any numerical data, but rather serves as a qualitative illustration of astronomical concepts.
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Fig 2 [5] is taken from an article of Prof. M. N. Vahia on why we observe Makara Samkranti on 14 January [6]. It clearly shows that the present solar alignment with the constellation Capricorn (Makara) indeed starts at mid-January instead of the true winter solstice of 21-22 December. The slow time drift of the solstice and equinox was empirically known to the ancient Greek astronomers. Therefore it must have been known to the Siddhanta astronomers of India as well. So the question is why the necessary recalibration to account for this drift was not done. The reason could be one of societal attitude. Firstly to dirty your hands with experiments; and secondly when you find after yearlong painstaking observations that your empirical results are in conflict with the predictions of time honoured scriptures, who will listen to you? So the astronomers by and large chose the easy option of following the scriptures on the excuse that the Makara Samkranti corresponds to the alignment of sun with the celestial Makara constellation rather than the terrestrial Makara kranti, although the former has little relevance to the terrestrial phenomena as mentioned above. In many parts of India the Vishuva Samkranti on 14 April, marking the start of the solar month of Baishakh, is even a more important festival than the Makara Samkranti. It marks the start of the new year in Bengal and Orissa, and also in Kerala, where it is called Vishu Samkranti. It is celebrated in Mangalore as Bishu and in Assam as Bihu. It again comes after 23 days of the true Vernal Equinox; and in this case one does not even have the alibi of a celestial marker by that name. The Indian Calendar Reforms Committee had suggested removing the historical misnomers from the Baishakh Samkranti of 14 April and Magh Samkranti of 14 January, and recognize the true Vernal Equinox and Winter Solstice in the Indian calendar as Vishuva rekha Divas and Makara kranti Divas respectively. But it went unheeded.
Another serious limitation of Indian astronomy of this period is the non-recording of purely empirical phenomena. The Chinese have
kept data of meteoric showers, 29 appearances of Halley's comet, 90 novae and supernovae along with intense sunspot activities [1]. Yet there is no Indian record of these empirical phenomena, presumably because they did not relate to astronomical theories of that time. In particular, the spectacular Crab supernova explosion of 11 th century appeared as the second brightest object after the moon in the night sky for several weeks. It has been recorded by the Chinese, Arab and even Mayan astronomers of Mexico. Yet there is no credible evidence of Indian astronomical record of this very important event. This was the conclusion of Profs. J. V. Narlikar and S. Bhate after a thorough search of the contemporary Indian documents on an INSA project.
## Metallurgy [3]:
India was a major exporter of ferrous metals throughout ancient history. The iron pillars of Delhi, originally from Vididsha (400 AD), and of Dhar (1000 AD) stand living testimony to the skills of ancient Indian metallurgists.
Fig 3. The iron pillar of Delhi
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<summary>Image 3 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Photograph: Iron Pillar of Delhi
### Overview
The image depicts the Iron Pillar of Delhi, a historical monument located in India. The pillar is a tall, dark-colored metal structure standing in an open area surrounded by remnants of older structures and a protective fence. The sky is bright, suggesting a sunny day. The image does not contain charts, diagrams, or data tables. It is a photograph of a physical object.
### Components/Axes
There are no axes or legends present in the image. The key components are:
* **Iron Pillar:** The central, dominant feature. It appears cylindrical and tapers slightly towards the top. It has ornate carvings at the top.
* **Protective Fence:** A circular, orange-colored metal fence surrounds the base of the pillar.
* **Ruined Structures:** Brick and stone ruins are visible in the background, on both the left and right sides of the pillar. These appear to be remnants of older buildings.
* **Scaffolding:** Wooden scaffolding is visible behind the pillar on the right side, suggesting ongoing restoration or maintenance work.
* **People:** Several people are visible in the background, providing a sense of scale.
* **Vegetation:** Trees and bushes are visible in the far background.
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
The Iron Pillar is approximately 7.2 meters (23.8 feet) tall. It is made of wrought iron and has remarkably resisted corrosion for over 1600 years. The pillar's surface is dark brown/rust colored, but appears relatively smooth despite its age. The carvings at the top are intricate and appear to be of a floral or geometric design. The ruins in the background are constructed from red brick and stone. The fence is made of vertical metal bars connected by horizontal rails. The people in the background are small in scale, indicating the pillar's significant height.
### Key Observations
The most striking observation is the pillar's remarkable preservation despite its age and exposure to the elements. The contrast between the well-preserved pillar and the surrounding ruins highlights its unique durability. The presence of scaffolding suggests ongoing efforts to protect and maintain this historical artifact.
### Interpretation
The image showcases a significant historical and metallurgical achievement. The Iron Pillar of Delhi is a testament to the advanced iron-working skills of ancient India. Its resistance to corrosion is a subject of ongoing scientific study. The surrounding ruins suggest a long and complex history of the site, with the pillar being a surviving element of earlier civilizations. The protective fence and scaffolding indicate a modern awareness of the pillar's importance and a commitment to its preservation. The image evokes a sense of awe and wonder at the ingenuity and resilience of past cultures. The pillar is a symbol of India's rich cultural heritage and technological prowess.
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The Delhi pillar is 7 m high and weighs 6.5 tons. It is 98% pure iron with a high Phosphorous content to make it rust resistant. It is generally believed that no other country had the capability to
produce an iron mass of this size and purity till the industrial revolution of 18 th century. The Dhar pillar had a weight of a little more than 7 tons and almost twice the height of the Delhi pillar, but is now broken into three pieces. It also has a high Phosphorous content for rust resistance like the Delhi pillar [7].
Equally important was the discovery of steel production in Deccan by the carbonization of iron around 600 BC [3]. It was globally exported throughout the period of ancient Indian history. There was a close triangular link between Alchemy, Metallurgy and Aurveda. Alchemy had two branches called Deha Siddhi and Loha Siddhi. The former dealt with the production of various Bhasmas of Aurvedic medicine, while the latter dealt with the chemicals used in metal smelting and production of special quality metals like steel. The latter in turn was closely connected with the sharp edged instruments used in Aurvedic surgery. It is said that the surgical instruments of Susruta were fabricated with Deccan steel. These three sciences had a synergetic growth through the period of ancient history up to the 9 th century.
The state of Indian metallurgy after 1000 AD has been discussed by Prof. B. Prakash [8]. It saw a rapid decline during 11 th -12 th century as Ghaznavid and Ghorian invaders destroyed the iron producing industry and took away many thousands of skilled workers as slaves to bolster their own armament production. However, during the Mughal period a subaltern culture of metallurgy was revived for large scale production of armaments and construction of large cannons, some weighing 20-40 tons. With some interruptions the Deccan steel export to Arab countries continued into the medieval period for making quality armaments. The famous Damascus sword was made with Deccan steel [3]. But both of them had declined by the 18 th century. The death blow to the Indian metal industry was dealt by the British Colonial Government policy of shipping iron ore to British plants at the cost of the Indian foundries.
## Ayurveda:
The Indian Academy of Sciences has brought out a vision document on Aurvedic Biology by Prof. M. S. Valiathan, who is a prominent cardiac surgeon and discoverer of a famous heart valve, past president of Indian National Science Academy, past vicechancellor of Manipal University and presently a national professor there. Prof. Valiathan is also an authority on Ayurvedic Biology not only as a theoretical scholar but one actively engaged in experiments to scientifically test the efficacy of various Ayurvedic procedures as well. Therefore my discussion of this section will be largely based on the material of this document [9]. In fact I shall be quoting many passages from this document, risking the charge of plagiarism, because I could not have put them any better.
According to Valiathan [9], the Samhita phase from 1 st to 9 th century AD is regarded as the golden age of Ayurveda. It had three major texts called the Brihadtrayi. 1) Caraka Samhita (1 st century) is a redaction by Caraka of a treatise composed by Agnives several centuries earlier. 2) On the other hand, Susruta Samhita (2 nd -3 rd century) is a redaction by Nagarjuna of the surgical treatise of Susruta, who is said to have lived around 700 BC. 3) Finally, Astanga Samgraha and Astanga Hrdaya (8 th -9 th century) are composed by Vagbhata.
Caraka's redaction was so highly creative that the new text came to be acclaimed as Caraka Samhita. Here Ayurveda got its name for the first time, and it moved from a faith-based to a reason-based platform. It was encyclopedic in the coverage of medicines, and recognized as the last word in internal medicine. It was translated into Persian, Arabic and Tibetan within 2-3 centuries and spread its influence to central Asia, where Bower manuscript of 400 AD with numerous quotes from Caraka was discovered in 1890. Bower was an intelligence officer of British Indian army, who discovered this manuscript written on Parchment in Brahmi script with some
natives of central Asia and brought it to the Asiatic Society at Calcutta [3]. Caraka Samhita was translated into English in 19 th century. Its popularity continues in the 21 st century, when a digital version was prepared by Prof. Yamashita of Kyoto University [9].
Susruta's name is forever associated with rhinoplasty (nose repair), the only surgical procedure from India to have won global recognition in three millennia! Susruta Samhita is a comprehensive medical treatise with heavy surgical orientation, dealing with surgical procedures, instruments, care of trauma, medications etc. Drawings of some surgical procedures and instruments are shown in Figs 4-7 [9]. Compared to Caraka Samhita it has simpler language and lower emphasis on the philosophical dimensions of medical practice. This, along with its precise drawings of surgical procedures and instruments, suggest the compiler Nagarjuna was more likely to be a hands-on experimentalist rather than a theoretical scholar. Many believe him to be the Buddhist alchemist of that name described by Hsuan-tsang; but there is no definitive evidence for this [3]. Susruta Samhita enjoyed great authority even beyond the Indian borders because it was translated into Arabic under the Caliphate, when Indian physicians were believed to have lived in Baghdad [9].
There is little doubt that the Susruta and Carak Samhitas were taught at Nalanda; and the large number of students from Tibet, China and other east Asian countries would have carried home their copies and translations. Transfer of knowledge was also facilitated by Indian teachers accompanying these home-bound disciples. Even today, several texts in medicine, philosophy etc, which are no longer available in Sanskrit original, are available in their Chinese and Tibetan translations. What the barbarians destroyed in India had a resurrection in other countries [9]. The last sentence refers to the destruction of Nalanda by Bakhtiar Khilzi around 1200 AD.
Fig. 4Plastic repair of nose
<details>
<summary>Image 4 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Diagram: Nasolabial Fold Illustration
### Overview
The image presents a comparative illustration of the nasolabial fold, a skin fold running from the nose to the mouth. It depicts a side-by-side comparison of a face with a prominent nasolabial fold and a face undergoing a cosmetic procedure involving fillers to reduce its appearance. The illustration is a hand-drawn sketch.
### Components/Axes
The image consists of two nearly identical facial profiles. The left profile shows a natural nasolabial fold, while the right profile demonstrates the effect of filler injection. There are no explicit axes or scales. The illustration focuses on the visual representation of the fold and its modification.
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
The left side of the image shows a facial profile with a clearly defined nasolabial fold extending from the side of the nose down to the corner of the mouth. The fold is represented by a darker, more defined line. The area within the fold is shaded with short, curved lines.
The right side of the image depicts the same facial profile, but with filler injected into the nasolabial fold. Three elongated, curved shapes are shown extending from the area around the nose, representing the filler material. The area where the fold previously existed is now filled with a dense pattern of diagonal lines, indicating the smoothing effect of the filler. A dotted line connects the filler injection points to the area of the nasolabial fold.
### Key Observations
The primary observation is the visual contrast between the natural nasolabial fold and its appearance after filler injection. The filler appears to lift and smooth the skin, reducing the depth and prominence of the fold. The illustration highlights the technique of using fillers to address signs of aging.
### Interpretation
The diagram illustrates a common cosmetic procedure aimed at reducing the appearance of nasolabial folds. The illustration suggests that filler injections can effectively smooth out the fold, creating a more youthful appearance. The use of shading and line patterns effectively conveys the difference in texture and depth between the natural fold and the treated area. The dotted line indicates the path of the filler, suggesting the injection technique. The image is a simplified representation intended for educational or informational purposes, likely aimed at patients considering this type of cosmetic treatment. It does not provide quantitative data, but rather a qualitative visual comparison.
</details>
Described by Susruta: a pedicle flap from the cheek was used; the eighteenth century practitioner in Pune took the flap from forehead
<details>
<summary>Image 5 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Diagram: Plastic Repair of Ear Lobe
### Overview
The image presents a diagram illustrating the plastic repair of an ear lobe. It depicts two side-by-side drawings of an ear, labeled 'i.' and 'ii.', showcasing the ear lobe before and after a reconstructive procedure. The diagram is accompanied by a caption explaining the historical context of this surgical technique.
### Components/Axes
The diagram consists of two labeled illustrations:
* **i.** Represents the ear lobe before repair, appearing intact.
* **ii.** Represents the ear lobe after damage and subsequent repair, showing a reconstructed area with detailed stitching.
The caption below the images reads: "Fig. 5 Plastic repair of ear lobe was recommended by Susruta when the ear lobe was destroyed by infection following the piercing of ear".
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
* **Illustration i.:** Depicts a normal ear lobe, with a smooth, continuous outline. The drawing is a line drawing, showing the basic shape of the ear and lobe.
* **Illustration ii.:** Shows an ear lobe that has been damaged and repaired. The lower portion of the lobe is visibly reconstructed, with a series of short, curved lines representing stitches. The reconstructed area appears to be a flap of tissue brought together and secured. The drawing shows the internal structure of the repair, with lines indicating the underlying tissue and the way the flap is positioned.
* **Caption:** The caption states that the plastic repair of the ear lobe was a technique recommended by Susruta, an ancient Indian surgeon, for cases where the ear lobe was destroyed by infection following ear piercing.
### Key Observations
The diagram clearly illustrates the difference between a normal ear lobe and one that has undergone reconstructive surgery. The detailed depiction of the stitching in illustration ii. suggests a focus on the surgical technique used for repair. The historical context provided in the caption highlights the long-standing practice of ear lobe reconstruction.
### Interpretation
The diagram demonstrates a surgical procedure for repairing damaged ear lobes, specifically those damaged by infection following piercing. The reference to Susruta indicates that this technique has been practiced for centuries, suggesting its effectiveness and enduring relevance. The diagram serves as a visual aid for understanding the process of ear lobe reconstruction, showcasing both the problem (damaged lobe) and the solution (surgical repair). The level of detail in illustration ii. suggests that the diagram is intended for a medical audience or those interested in surgical techniques. The diagram is not presenting data, but rather illustrating a medical procedure and its historical context.
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<details>
<summary>Image 6 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Diagram: Collection of Hook-Like Tools
### Overview
The image presents a 2x3 grid arrangement of line drawings depicting six different hook-like tools. These tools appear to be variations of a grappling hook or similar device, potentially used for lifting or securing objects. There are no labels, axes, or legends present. The image is purely visual, lacking quantitative data.
### Components/Axes
There are no axes or legends. The components are the six individual hook-like tools. Each tool is a single, continuous line drawing.
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
The tools can be described individually, noting key features:
1. **Top-Left:** A hook with a curved body and a single, prominent curved hook at the end. The body has a slight "S" shape.
2. **Top-Center:** A hook with a more angular body and a smaller, more sharply curved hook. It has a small circular feature near the base of the hook.
3. **Top-Right:** A hook with a highly twisted, almost braided body, culminating in two curved hooks.
4. **Bottom-Left:** A hook with a curved body and a single, curved hook. It features a circular hole near the base of the hook.
5. **Bottom-Center:** A hook similar to the bottom-left, with a curved body and a single, curved hook, and a circular hole near the base.
6. **Bottom-Right:** A hook with a twisted body and two curved hooks. It features two circular holes near the base of the hooks.
All tools are depicted in a black line drawing on a white background. The line thickness appears consistent across all tools.
### Key Observations
The tools share a common theme of having a curved body and at least one hook. The variations lie in the complexity of the body (straight, curved, twisted) and the number of hooks (one or two). The presence of circular holes in some of the tools suggests a potential attachment point for a rope or chain.
### Interpretation
The image likely represents a collection of different designs for a grappling hook or similar tool. The variations could reflect different intended uses, load capacities, or manufacturing techniques. The absence of scale or context makes it difficult to determine the precise purpose of each tool. The image could be part of a historical catalog, a design study, or an illustration for a technical manual. The tools appear to be manually drawn, suggesting they are not modern, mass-produced items. The variations in design suggest an iterative process of improvement or adaptation to specific needs. The circular holes are a consistent feature in some designs, indicating a need for secure attachment. Without additional information, the image remains descriptive rather than analytical. It presents a visual inventory of hook-like tools without providing any data or insights into their function or history.
</details>
Fig.6 Instruments-blunt(Yantras) Afewfromthe100bluntinstrumentsofSusruta
<details>
<summary>Image 7 Details</summary>
### Visual Description
\n
## Diagram: Surgical Instruments - Sharp (Sastras)
### Overview
The image is a black and white line drawing depicting five surgical instruments, identified as "sharp (Sastras)" and attributed to Susruta. The instruments are arranged horizontally across the image. The image appears to be an illustration from a historical or medical text.
### Components/Axes
There are no axes or scales present. The image consists solely of the illustrations of the instruments and a caption.
* **Caption:** "Fig. 7 Instruments – sharp (Sastras) A few from the 20 sharp instruments of Susruta"
### Detailed Analysis or Content Details
The instruments, from left to right, appear to be:
1. **Spoon-shaped instrument:** A rounded, spoon-like end attached to a narrow handle. Approximately 8cm in length.
2. **Sharp-pointed instrument:** A long, slender instrument with a sharply pointed tip. Approximately 10cm in length.
3. **Blade-like instrument:** A folding instrument resembling a small knife or scalpel, with a pivot point near the handle. Approximately 7cm in length when closed.
4. **Curved instrument:** A curved, hook-like instrument with a pointed end. Approximately 8cm in length.
5. **Hooked instrument:** An instrument with a curved, hooked end and a handle with a rounded base. Approximately 9cm in length.
The instruments are all depicted in a simple line drawing style, with minimal shading or detail.
### Key Observations
The image showcases a selection of surgical tools used by Susruta, an ancient Indian surgeon. The instruments are relatively simple in design, suggesting a focus on functionality over complex mechanics. The caption indicates that these are just a few of the 20 sharp instruments used by Susruta.
### Interpretation
The image provides a glimpse into the surgical practices of ancient India. Susruta is considered a pioneer in surgical techniques, and these instruments demonstrate the level of sophistication achieved during that period. The variety of instruments suggests that Susruta performed a range of surgical procedures, including incisions, dissections, and possibly even more complex operations. The fact that these are described as "sharp (Sastras)" indicates the importance of precise cutting and dissection in his surgical approach. The image serves as a historical artifact, illustrating the tools and techniques used by one of the earliest known surgeons. The instruments are not presented with any scale or context of use, so the interpretation is limited to their visual form and the accompanying caption.
</details>
Acharya P. C. Ray estimated the date of composition of Astanga Samgraha and Astanga Hrdaya by Vagbhata to be 8 th -9 th century, when Ayurveda was on the threshold of stagnation [2]. These texts accept the authority of Caraka and Susruta in no uncertain terms and present their teachings in a simple and abridged manner for average students. Astanga Hrdaya accomplished this objective admirably and became a popular favourite, thanks to the gift of poetic excellence that no other text could claim. After Vagbhata, the springs of creativity ran dry and a long phase of stagnation ensued for a thousand years in the history of Ayurveda [9].
Of course some important texts of Ayurveda appeared during this phase along with many dictionaries and commentaries on earlier texts. But there were no more Carakas and Susrutas, nor the power-houses of learning like Nalanda. The preference of the Muslim rulers for Unani hastened the decline of Ayurveda. But the malady had roots running deeper in the social history of India, because the surgical techniques of Susruta had more or less disappeared from the mainstream of Ayurveda already by the time of Vagbhata. Cadaveric dissection was no more mentioned; and the training of disciples did not include exercises on cucumber, jackfruit and animal skin etc for learning incision, extraction, scraping and other surgical procedures [9].
So the Afghan/Turkish conquest of India and destruction of Nalanda around 1200 AD were not the causes but rather the consequences of the decline in Indian science and civilization that had started at least a couple of centuries earlier. Mahmud of Ghazni raided India 17 times during 1000-1027 AD over a wide front from Mathura to Somnath in Saurastra, destroying its monuments and industries, plundering its wealth and taking many thousands of its skilled workers as slaves. Yet we did not learn our lessons and put our house in order. Al-Beruni was a central Asian scientist/scholar, who came to India in 1017 at the behest of Mahmud of Ghazni and spent thirteen years travelling through this
country to write a comprehensive book on the nation and its people. His account is generally considered to be candid but objective. An extract from Al-Beruni's account of the Indian people is quoted below [10].
'The Hindus believe that there is no country but theirs, no nation like theirs, no king like theirs, no religion like theirs. They are haughty, foolishly vain, self-conceited and stolid. They are by nature niggardly in communicating that which they know, and they take greatest possible care to withhold it from men of another caste among their own people, still much more, of course, from any foreigner….. Their haughtiness is such that, if you tell them of any science or scholar in Khorasan or Persia, they will think you to be both an ignoramus and a liar. If they traveled and mixed with other nations, they would soon change their mind, for their ancestors were not as narrow minded as the present generation is.'
The last line of this passage is very significant, because the nation had assimilated the Saka and Kusana conquerors into the Indian civilization in 2 nd -3 rd century AD. It had also spread the Indian civilization throughout south-east Asia through travelling tradesmen without any bloodshed. And it had spread Buddhism over most of Asia through exchange of scholars. But this vibrant nation with a pan-Asian outreach had folded up into its narrow regional, caste and sub-caste groups by 1000 AD. Moreover, lofty institutions like Nalanda had weakened considerably, because there was no empire to support them anymore. So it became an easy prey for external aggressors.
## Surviving Subcultures of Surgical and Metallurgical Skills:
The surgical procedures which disappeared from the main stream of society survived however among castes, considered low in the social hierarchy. Susruta's nose repair is an interesting example. Barring a perfunctory reference, it received no serious attention in the Aurvedic texts; nor was it performed by reputed Vaidyas. Its
survival was 'discovered' accidentally by British observers in Pune towards the end of 18 th century [9].
Pune Nose Repair Episode: Dr. Scott, a sympathetic British doctor residing in Mumbai, had heard from one Capt. Irvine in 1793 about the practice among 'gentoos of putting new noses on people who have had them cut off' presumably for some criminal offence. He assured Dr. Scott that all the employees of the East India company in Pune were witness to the operation which gave them a 'pretty good nose'! Dr. Scott then wrote to Mr. Findlay, the company surgeon in Pune, to ascertain the veracity of this report because such an operation was unknown in Europe. Mr. Findlay sent a detailed report on the basis of eyewitness observation by himself and Mr. Cruso on 1 st January 1794. The report described how a 'koomar' caste man had borrowed an old razor for this occasion, dissected a flap from the forehead of the patient with much composure, freshened the edges of the nasal defect and applied the flap there on by rotation with a cement 'without the aid of stitches, sticking plaster or bandages'. The flap healed and 'an adhesion had taken place seemingly in every part'. It was a report of this procedure, published in the 'Gentleman's Magazine' of London in 1794, which caught the attention of a surgeon, Dr. J. C. Caprue, FRS. He performed the operation for the first time in the West and published a full length paper on 'An account of two successful operation for restoring a lost nose from the integuments of the forehead' in 1816.
Other Surgical Skills: A similar eyewitness report on Susruta's couching for cataract was given by Dr. Ekambaram of Coimbatore in 1916. He found that the procedure was done by iterant Mohammedan Vaidyas who followed the steps of Susruta's method [9]. Note that the procedures in Pune and Coimbatore were done not by Ayurvedic physicians but by illiterate men, who had learned the techniques from an earlier generation. Treatment of fracture by bonesetters, child delivery by dais and many other
procedures involving 'dirtying of hand' were relegated to lower caste persons, who did not understand their anatomical basis or rationale. It was as if the nation's brain had been decoupled from its hand, which ensured that there could never be innovation based on true understanding.
Metallurgical Skills: There is also anecdotal evidence showing the survival of a subculture of metallurgical skills among the lower castes [9, 11]. On the request of the Govt. of Bengal in 1828, James Franklin, FRS, made a thorough study of the ore, charcoal and furnaces used by the natives of Central India for making iron. He wrote 'the smelting furnaces, though crude in appearance, are nevertheless very exact in the interior proportions, and it has often surprised me to see men, who are unquestionably ignorant of their principle, construct them with such precision'. He went on to describe in detail the geometrical and practical construction of the furnace, the construction and use of bellows, construction of two refineries for each furnace, mode of smelting and refining etc. On getting the product evaluated at the Sagar mint he wrote ' the bar iron was of the most excellent quality, possessing all the desirable properties of malleability, ductility at different temperatures and of tenacity of which I think it cannot be surpassed by the best Swedish iron'. Though the workmen could not answer Franklin's questions or explain the procedures used for hundreds of years by their forefathers, he commented that the 'original plan of this singular furnace must have been the work of advanced intelligence' [11]. In fact this was the relic of a civilization that had produced the iron pillars of Delhi/Vidisha in 400 AD and Dhar in 1000 AD. Actually Vidisha and Dhar are both located in Central India, i.e. the same geographical region as the abovementioned workmen of a much later period.
## Conclusion:
The above anecdotes make poignant stories. But what lesson do we learn from them? Should they make us happy or sad? Let me
conclude by answering these questions in the words of Prof. Valiathan and those of his inspiration, Acharya P. C. Ray, as quoted by him.
Reflections of M. S. Valiathan: The workmen doing the nose repair in Pune, cataract couching in Coimbatore and ore smelting in Jabalpur were condemned to illiteracy, low social status, poor selfesteem and little hope of self advancement. Since this grim prospect claimed hundreds of thousands of citizens, who used their hands to make a living, ruin could be the only destination of their nation [9].
Reflections of P. C. Ray: According to Susruta, the dissection of dead bodies is a sine qua non (indispensible) to the students of surgery, and this high authority lays particular stress on knowledge gained from experiments and observations. But Manu would have none of it. According to Manu, the very touch of corpse is enough to contaminate the sacred person of a Brahmin. Thus we find shortly after Vagbhata, the handling of a lancet was discouraged and anatomy and surgery fell to disuse and became, to all intents and purposes, lost sciences for the Hindus. It was considered equally undignified to sweat away at the metal furnaces. The sciences being thus relegated to the lower castes, and the professions made hereditary, a certain degree of fineness, delicacy and deftness in manipulation was no doubt secured. But this was accomplished at a terrible cost. The intellectual portion of the community being thus withdrawn from active participation in these sciences, the how and why of phenomenon - the coordination of cause and effect - were lost sight of. The spirit of enquiry gradually died out among a nation, naturally prone to speculation and metaphysical subtleties, and India for once bade adieu to experimental and inductive sciences. Her soil was made morally unfit for the birth of a Boyle, a Descartes, or a Newton; and her very name was expunged from the map of the scientific world for a time [2].
Under these circumstances, India's rout at the East-West encounter of the 18 th century was a foregone conclusion [9].
Acknowledgement: The author acknowledges partial support from the senior scientist fellowship of the Indian National Science Academy.
## References:
1. M. K. Pal, Key Note Address : Proc. National Symp. on Scientific Contributions of Samanta Chandra Sekhar to Astronomy, Allied Publishers (2006).
2. P. C. Ray: History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, Indian Chemical Society, Calcutta (1956).
3. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia on the internet.
4. Google Images - https://www.google.co.in/
5. http://www.factmonster.com/ipka/A0769237.html
6. M. N. Vahia: DNA daily news paper, 9 March 2014.
7. R. Balasubramanian, Indian J. History Sci. 37, 115 (2002).
8. B. Prakash, Indian J. History Sci. 46, 381(2011).
9. M. S. Valiathan: Towards Ayurvedic Biology, A Decadal Vision Document of Indian Academy of Sciences, Bangalore (2006).
10. 10.http://www.shunya.net/Text/Blog/AlBeruniIndia.html.
11. Dharampal: Indian Science and Technology in the 18 th Century, Academy of Gandhian Studies, Hyderabad (1983).