2306.08302v3

# Unifying Large Language Models and Knowledge Graphs: A Roadmap > Shirui Pan is with the School of Information and Communication Technology and Institute for Integrated and Intelligent Systems (IIIS), Griffith University, Queensland, Australia. Email: s.pan@griffith.edu.au; Linhao Luo and Yufei Wang are with the Department of Data Science and AI, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. E-mail: linhao.luo@monash.edu, garyyufei@gmail.com. Chen Chen is with the Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. E-mail: s190009@ntu.edu.sg. Jiapu Wang is with the Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China. E-mail: jpwang@emails.bjut.edu.cn. Xindong Wu is with the Key Laboratory of Knowledge Engineering with Big Data (the Ministry of Education of China), Hefei University of Technology, Hefei, China, and also with the Research Center for Knowledge Engineering, Zhejiang Lab, Hangzhou, China. Email: xwu@hfut.edu.cn. Shirui Pan and Linhao Luo contributed equally to this work. Corresponding Author: Xindong Wu. Abstract Large language models (LLMs), such as ChatGPT and GPT4, are making new waves in the field of natural language processing and artificial intelligence, due to their emergent ability and generalizability. However, LLMs are black-box models, which often fall short of capturing and accessing factual knowledge. In contrast, Knowledge Graphs (KGs), Wikipedia and Huapu for example, are structured knowledge models that explicitly store rich factual knowledge. KGs can enhance LLMs by providing external knowledge for inference and interpretability. Meanwhile, KGs are difficult to construct and evolve by nature, which challenges the existing methods in KGs to generate new facts and represent unseen knowledge. Therefore, it is complementary to unify LLMs and KGs together and simultaneously leverage their advantages. In this article, we present a forward-looking roadmap for the unification of LLMs and KGs. Our roadmap consists of three general frameworks, namely, 1) KG-enhanced LLMs, which incorporate KGs during the pre-training and inference phases of LLMs, or for the purpose of enhancing understanding of the knowledge learned by LLMs; 2) LLM-augmented KGs, that leverage LLMs for different KG tasks such as embedding, completion, construction, graph-to-text generation, and question answering; and 3) Synergized LLMs + KGs, in which LLMs and KGs play equal roles and work in a mutually beneficial way to enhance both LLMs and KGs for bidirectional reasoning driven by both data and knowledge. We review and summarize existing efforts within these three frameworks in our roadmap and pinpoint their future research directions. Index Terms: Natural Language Processing, Large Language Models, Generative Pre-Training, Knowledge Graphs, Roadmap, Bidirectional Reasoning. publicationid: pubid: 0000–0000/00$00.00 © 2023 IEEE 1 Introduction Large language models (LLMs) LLMs are also known as pre-trained language models (PLMs). (e.g., BERT [1], RoBERTA [2], and T5 [3]), pre-trained on the large-scale corpus, have shown great performance in various natural language processing (NLP) tasks, such as question answering [4], machine translation [5], and text generation [6]. Recently, the dramatically increasing model size further enables the LLMs with the emergent ability [7], paving the road for applying LLMs as Artificial General Intelligence (AGI). Advanced LLMs like ChatGPT https://openai.com/blog/chatgpt and PaLM2 https://ai.google/discover/palm2, with billions of parameters, exhibit great potential in many complex practical tasks, such as education [8], code generation [9] and recommendation [10]. <details> <summary>extracted/5367551/figs/LLM_vs_KG.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graphs (KGs) vs. Large Language Models (LLMs) ### Overview The image is a diagram comparing the pros and cons of Knowledge Graphs (KGs) and Large Language Models (LLMs). It uses a yin-yang style layout with two overlapping circles, one yellow representing LLMs and one blue representing KGs. Arrows indicate a flow or relationship between the two. ### Components/Axes * **Title:** Knowledge Graphs (KGs) * **Subtitle:** Large Language Models (LLMs) * **KG Pros:** * Structural Knowledge * Accuracy * Decisiveness * Interpretability * Domain-specific Knowledge * Evolving Knowledge * **KG Cons:** * Incompleteness * Lacking Language Understanding * Unseen Facts * **LLM Pros:** * General Knowledge * Language Processing * Generalizability * **LLM Cons:** * Implicit Knowledge * Hallucination * Indecisiveness * Black-box * Lacking Domain-specific/New Knowledge * **Arrows:** A blue arrow curves from the LLM cons section towards the KG pros section. A gold arrow curves from the KG cons section towards the LLM pros section. ### Detailed Analysis or Content Details The diagram visually represents the strengths and weaknesses of Knowledge Graphs (KGs) and Large Language Models (LLMs). The blue circle on the top-right lists the pros and cons of KGs, while the yellow circle on the bottom-left lists the pros and cons of LLMs. * **Knowledge Graphs (KGs):** * **Pros:** The KG pros are listed in the top-right of the diagram. They include structural knowledge, accuracy, decisiveness, interpretability, domain-specific knowledge, and evolving knowledge. * **Cons:** The KG cons are listed in the bottom-right of the diagram. They include incompleteness, lacking language understanding, and unseen facts. * **Large Language Models (LLMs):** * **Pros:** The LLM pros are listed in the bottom-left of the diagram. They include general knowledge, language processing, and generalizability. * **Cons:** The LLM cons are listed in the top-left of the diagram. They include implicit knowledge, hallucination, indecisiveness, black-box nature, and lacking domain-specific/new knowledge. * **Arrows:** * The blue arrow suggests that the cons of LLMs (implicit knowledge, hallucination, etc.) can be addressed or mitigated by the pros of KGs (structural knowledge, accuracy, etc.). * The gold arrow suggests that the cons of KGs (incompleteness, lacking language understanding, etc.) can be addressed or mitigated by the pros of LLMs (general knowledge, language processing, etc.). ### Key Observations * The diagram highlights a complementary relationship between KGs and LLMs. * The arrows suggest a potential for synergy between the two technologies, where the strengths of one can compensate for the weaknesses of the other. * The diagram presents a high-level overview of the trade-offs involved in choosing between or combining KGs and LLMs. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates the idea that Knowledge Graphs and Large Language Models have distinct strengths and weaknesses. It suggests that these technologies can be used together to create more robust and effective knowledge systems. The arrows indicate a flow of benefits, implying that integrating KGs and LLMs can lead to a system that leverages the structured knowledge and accuracy of KGs with the general knowledge and language processing capabilities of LLMs. This integration could potentially mitigate the issues of hallucination and lack of domain-specific knowledge in LLMs, while also addressing the incompleteness and language understanding limitations of KGs. The diagram promotes the idea of a hybrid approach, combining the best aspects of both technologies. </details> Figure 1: Summarization of the pros and cons for LLMs and KGs. LLM pros: General Knowledge [11], Language Processing [12], Generalizability [13]; LLM cons: Implicit Knowledge [14], Hallucination [15], Indecisiveness [16], Black-box [17], Lacking Domain-specific/New Knowledge [18]. KG pros: Structural Knowledge [19], Accuracy [20], Decisiveness [21], Interpretability [22], Domain-specific Knowledge [23], Evolving Knowledge [24]; KG cons: Incompleteness [25], Lacking Language Understanding [26], Unseen Facts [27]. Pros. and Cons. are selected based on their representativeness. Detailed discussion can be found in Appendix A. Despite their success in many applications, LLMs have been criticized for their lack of factual knowledge. Specifically, LLMs memorize facts and knowledge contained in the training corpus [14]. However, further studies reveal that LLMs are not able to recall facts and often experience hallucinations by generating statements that are factually incorrect [28, 15]. For example, LLMs might say “Einstein discovered gravity in 1687” when asked, “When did Einstein discover gravity?”, which contradicts the fact that Isaac Newton formulated the gravitational theory. This issue severely impairs the trustworthiness of LLMs. As black-box models, LLMs are also criticized for their lack of interpretability. LLMs represent knowledge implicitly in their parameters. It is difficult to interpret or validate the knowledge obtained by LLMs. Moreover, LLMs perform reasoning by a probability model, which is an indecisive process [16]. The specific patterns and functions LLMs used to arrive at predictions or decisions are not directly accessible or explainable to humans [17]. Even though some LLMs are equipped to explain their predictions by applying chain-of-thought [29], their reasoning explanations also suffer from the hallucination issue [30]. This severely impairs the application of LLMs in high-stakes scenarios, such as medical diagnosis and legal judgment. For instance, in a medical diagnosis scenario, LLMs may incorrectly diagnose a disease and provide explanations that contradict medical commonsense. This raises another issue that LLMs trained on general corpus might not be able to generalize well to specific domains or new knowledge due to the lack of domain-specific knowledge or new training data [18]. To address the above issues, a potential solution is to incorporate knowledge graphs (KGs) into LLMs. Knowledge graphs (KGs), storing enormous facts in the way of triples, i.e., $(head~{}entity,relation,tail~{}entity)$ , are a structured and decisive manner of knowledge representation (e.g., Wikidata [20], YAGO [31], and NELL [32]). KGs are crucial for various applications as they offer accurate explicit knowledge [19]. Besides, they are renowned for their symbolic reasoning ability [22], which generates interpretable results. KGs can also actively evolve with new knowledge continuously added in [24]. Additionally, experts can construct domain-specific KGs to provide precise and dependable domain-specific knowledge [23]. Nevertheless, KGs are difficult to construct [25], and current approaches in KGs [33, 34, 27] are inadequate in handling the incomplete and dynamically changing nature of real-world KGs. These approaches fail to effectively model unseen entities and represent new facts. In addition, they often ignore the abundant textual information in KGs. Moreover, existing methods in KGs are often customized for specific KGs or tasks, which are not generalizable enough. Therefore, it is also necessary to utilize LLMs to address the challenges faced in KGs. We summarize the pros and cons of LLMs and KGs in Fig. 1, respectively. Recently, the possibility of unifying LLMs with KGs has attracted increasing attention from researchers and practitioners. LLMs and KGs are inherently interconnected and can mutually enhance each other. In KG-enhanced LLMs, KGs can not only be incorporated into the pre-training and inference stages of LLMs to provide external knowledge [35, 36, 37], but also used for analyzing LLMs and providing interpretability [14, 38, 39]. In LLM-augmented KGs, LLMs have been used in various KG-related tasks, e.g., KG embedding [40], KG completion [26], KG construction [41], KG-to-text generation [42], and KGQA [43], to improve the performance and facilitate the application of KGs. In Synergized LLM + KG, researchers marries the merits of LLMs and KGs to mutually enhance performance in knowledge representation [44] and reasoning [45, 46]. Although there are some surveys on knowledge-enhanced LLMs [47, 48, 49], which mainly focus on using KGs as an external knowledge to enhance LLMs, they ignore other possibilities of integrating KGs for LLMs and the potential role of LLMs in KG applications. In this article, we present a forward-looking roadmap for unifying both LLMs and KGs, to leverage their respective strengths and overcome the limitations of each approach, for various downstream tasks. We propose detailed categorization, conduct comprehensive reviews, and pinpoint emerging directions in these fast-growing fields. Our main contributions are summarized as follows: 1. Roadmap. We present a forward-looking roadmap for integrating LLMs and KGs. Our roadmap, consisting of three general frameworks to unify LLMs and KGs, namely, KG-enhanced LLMs, LLM-augmented KGs, and Synergized LLMs + KGs, provides guidelines for the unification of these two distinct but complementary technologies. 1. Categorization and review. For each integration framework of our roadmap, we present a detailed categorization and novel taxonomies of research on unifying LLMs and KGs. In each category, we review the research from the perspectives of different integration strategies and tasks, which provides more insights into each framework. 1. Coverage of emerging advances. We cover the advanced techniques in both LLMs and KGs. We include the discussion of state-of-the-art LLMs like ChatGPT and GPT-4 as well as the novel KGs e.g., multi-modal knowledge graphs. 1. Summary of challenges and future directions. We highlight the challenges in existing research and present several promising future research directions. The rest of this article is organized as follows. Section 2 first explains the background of LLMs and KGs. Section 3 introduces the roadmap and the overall categorization of this article. Section 4 presents the different KGs-enhanced LLM approaches. Section 5 describes the possible LLM-augmented KG methods. Section 6 shows the approaches of synergizing LLMs and KGs. Section 7 discusses the challenges and future research directions. Finally, Section 8 concludes this paper. 2 Background In this section, we will first briefly introduce a few representative large language models (LLMs) and discuss the prompt engineering that efficiently uses LLMs for varieties of applications. Then, we illustrate the concept of knowledge graphs (KGs) and present different categories of KGs. <details> <summary>x1.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Model Architecture Timeline ### Overview The image presents a timeline of language model architectures, categorized by their encoder-decoder structure (Decoder-only, Encoder-decoder, Encoder-only). It shows the evolution of various models over time (2018-2023), indicating their names and parameter sizes. The models are color-coded to distinguish between open-source (yellow) and closed-source (red/purple/green). ### Components/Axes * **Y-Axis Categories:** * Decoder-only * Encoder-decoder * Encoder-only * **X-Axis:** Timeline from 2018 to 2023. * **Legend:** Located at the bottom-right of the image. * Open-Source (Yellow) * Closed-Source (Red/Purple/Green) * **Architecture Blocks:** Each architecture type (Decoder, Encoder) is represented by a yellow block with an upward arrow indicating "Output Text" or "Features" and a downward arrow indicating "Input Text". ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details **1. Decoder-only Models (Purple):** * **2018:** GPT-1 (110M parameters) * **2019:** GPT-2 (117M-1.5B parameters), XLNet (110M-340M parameters) * **2020:** GPT-3 (175B parameters) * **2022:** GLaM (1.2T parameters), OPT (175B parameters) * **2023:** ChatGPT (175B parameters), OPT-IML (175B parameters), Bard (137B parameters), GPT-4 (Unknown parameters), Gopher (280B parameters), LaMDA (137B parameters), PaLM (540B parameters), Flan PaLM (540B parameters), LLaMa (7B-65B parameters), Vicuna (7B parameters), Alpaca (7B-13B parameters) **Trend:** The Decoder-only models show a clear trend of increasing parameter size over time, with a significant jump from GPT-1 to GPT-3. **2. Encoder-decoder Models (Green):** * **2019:** BART (140M parameters), T5 (80M-11B parameters) * **2020:** T0 (11B parameters), mT5 (300M-13B parameters) * **2021:** GLM (110M-10B parameters), Switch (1.6T parameters) * **2022:** ST-MoE (4.1B-269B parameters), UL2 (20B parameters), Flan-T5 (80M-11B parameters) * **2023:** GLM-130B (130B parameters), Flan-UL2 (20B parameters) **Trend:** The Encoder-decoder models also show an increase in parameter size, but with more variation compared to the Decoder-only models. **3. Encoder-only Models (Red):** * **2018:** BERT (110M-340M parameters) * **2019:** DistillBert (66M parameters), RoBERTa (125M-355M parameters) * **2020:** ALBERT (11M-223M parameters), ERNIE (114M parameters), DeBERTa (44M-304M parameters) * **2021:** No models listed. * **2022:** No models listed. * **2023:** No models listed. **Trend:** The Encoder-only models appear to have been most prominent in the earlier years (2018-2020), with no new models listed after 2020. ### Key Observations * **Parameter Size Growth:** There is a general trend of increasing model parameter size across all architectures over time. * **Architecture Shift:** The timeline suggests a shift in focus from Encoder-only models to Decoder-only and Encoder-decoder models in later years. * **Open-Source vs. Closed-Source:** Both open-source and closed-source models are present in each category, but the specific ratio is not quantifiable from the image alone. * **GPT-4:** The parameter size for GPT-4 is listed as "Unknown," indicating that this information was not publicly available at the time the diagram was created. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates the rapid evolution of language models, highlighting the increasing complexity and size of these models over a relatively short period. The shift in architectural focus suggests that researchers and developers are exploring different approaches to improve model performance. The presence of both open-source and closed-source models indicates a diverse landscape of development and innovation in the field of natural language processing. The trend of increasing parameter size suggests that larger models are generally considered to be more capable, although this may come at the cost of increased computational resources and training time. </details> Figure 2: Representative large language models (LLMs) in recent years. Open-source models are represented by solid squares, while closed source models are represented by hollow squares. <details> <summary>x2.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Encoder-Decoder Architecture with Attention ### Overview The image depicts a high-level block diagram of an encoder-decoder architecture, likely used in sequence-to-sequence models, with a focus on attention mechanisms. The diagram shows the flow of information through the encoder and decoder, highlighting the self-attention and feed-forward layers within each. A detailed view of the self-attention mechanism is also provided. ### Components/Axes * **Encoder:** Labeled on the left, with an upward arrow indicating the direction of information flow. * Contains two blocks: "Feed Forward" (top) and "Self-Attention" (bottom). Both blocks are contained within a larger rounded rectangle with a yellow outline. * **Decoder:** Labeled in the center, with an upward arrow indicating the direction of information flow. * Contains three blocks: "Feed Forward" (top), "Encoder-Decoder Attention" (middle), and "Self-Attention" (bottom). All blocks are contained within a larger rounded rectangle with a yellow outline. * **Self-Attention (Detailed View):** Located on the right, enclosed in a rounded rectangle with a dashed line. An upward arrow indicates the direction of information flow. * Contains four blocks: "Linear" (top), "Concat" (second from top), "Multi-head Dot-Product Attention" (third from top, colored purple), and three "Linear" blocks at the bottom. * The three "Linear" blocks at the bottom have arrows pointing upwards from "V", "Q", and "K" respectively. ### Detailed Analysis * **Encoder:** * Input flows into the "Self-Attention" block. * Output from "Self-Attention" flows into the "Feed Forward" block. * Output from "Feed Forward" is the encoder's output. * **Decoder:** * Input flows into the "Self-Attention" block. * Output from "Self-Attention" flows into the "Encoder-Decoder Attention" block. * Output from "Encoder-Decoder Attention" flows into the "Feed Forward" block. * Output from "Feed Forward" is the decoder's output. * **Self-Attention (Detailed View):** * Inputs "V", "Q", and "K" each pass through a "Linear" transformation. * The outputs of the "Linear" transformations feed into the "Multi-head Dot-Product Attention" block. * The output of the "Multi-head Dot-Product Attention" block feeds into the "Concat" block. * The output of the "Concat" block feeds into the "Linear" block. * The output of the "Linear" block is the output of the self-attention mechanism. ### Key Observations * The diagram highlights the key components of an encoder-decoder architecture, including the feed-forward and attention mechanisms. * The detailed view of the self-attention mechanism shows the flow of information through the linear transformations, dot-product attention, and concatenation layers. * The use of "Self-Attention" in both the encoder and decoder suggests that the model is using self-attention to capture relationships within the input and output sequences. * The "Encoder-Decoder Attention" block in the decoder suggests that the model is using attention to align the input and output sequences. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a common architecture used in sequence-to-sequence tasks, such as machine translation or text summarization. The encoder processes the input sequence, and the decoder generates the output sequence. The attention mechanisms allow the model to focus on the most relevant parts of the input sequence when generating the output sequence. The self-attention mechanism allows the model to capture relationships within the input and output sequences, while the encoder-decoder attention mechanism allows the model to align the input and output sequences. The multi-head dot-product attention is a specific type of attention mechanism that allows the model to attend to different parts of the input sequence in parallel. The linear and concat layers are used to transform and combine the outputs of the attention mechanism. </details> Figure 3: An illustration of the Transformer-based LLMs with self-attention mechanism. 2.1 Large Language models (LLMs) Large language models (LLMs) pre-trained on large-scale corpus have shown great potential in various NLP tasks [13]. As shown in Fig. 3, most LLMs derive from the Transformer design [50], which contains the encoder and decoder modules empowered by a self-attention mechanism. Based on the architecture structure, LLMs can be categorized into three groups: 1) encoder-only LLMs, 2) encoder-decoder LLMs, and 3) decoder-only LLMs. As shown in Fig. 2, we summarize several representative LLMs with different model architectures, model sizes, and open-source availabilities. 2.1.1 Encoder-only LLMs. Encoder-only large language models only use the encoder to encode the sentence and understand the relationships between words. The common training paradigm for these model is to predict the mask words in an input sentence. This method is unsupervised and can be trained on the large-scale corpus. Encoder-only LLMs like BERT [1], ALBERT [51], RoBERTa [2], and ELECTRA [52] require adding an extra prediction head to resolve downstream tasks. These models are most effective for tasks that require understanding the entire sentence, such as text classification [26] and named entity recognition [53]. 2.1.2 Encoder-decoder LLMs. Encoder-decoder large language models adopt both the encoder and decoder module. The encoder module is responsible for encoding the input sentence into a hidden-space, and the decoder is used to generate the target output text. The training strategies in encoder-decoder LLMs can be more flexible. For example, T5 [3] is pre-trained by masking and predicting spans of masking words. UL2 [54] unifies several training targets such as different masking spans and masking frequencies. Encoder-decoder LLMs (e.g., T0 [55], ST-MoE [56], and GLM-130B [57]) are able to directly resolve tasks that generate sentences based on some context, such as summariaztion, translation, and question answering [58]. 2.1.3 Decoder-only LLMs. Decoder-only large language models only adopt the decoder module to generate target output text. The training paradigm for these models is to predict the next word in the sentence. Large-scale decoder-only LLMs can generally perform downstream tasks from a few examples or simple instructions, without adding prediction heads or finetuning [59]. Many state-of-the-art LLMs (e.g., Chat-GPT [60] and GPT-4 https://openai.com/product/gpt-4) follow the decoder-only architecture. However, since these models are closed-source, it is challenging for academic researchers to conduct further research. Recently, Alpaca https://github.com/tatsu-lab/stanford_alpaca and Vicuna https://lmsys.org/blog/2023-03-30-vicuna/ are released as open-source decoder-only LLMs. These models are finetuned based on LLaMA [61] and achieve comparable performance with ChatGPT and GPT-4. 2.1.4 Prompt Engineering Prompt engineering is a novel field that focuses on creating and refining prompts to maximize the effectiveness of large language models (LLMs) across various applications and research areas [62]. As shown in Fig. 4, a prompt is a sequence of natural language inputs for LLMs that are specified for the task, such as sentiment classification. A prompt could contain several elements, i.e., 1) Instruction, 2) Context, and 3) Input Text. Instruction is a short sentence that instructs the model to perform a specific task. Context provides the context for the input text or few-shot examples. Input Text is the text that needs to be processed by the model. Prompt engineering seeks to improve the capacity of large large language models (e.g., ChatGPT) in diverse complex tasks such as question answering, sentiment classification, and common sense reasoning. Chain-of-thought (CoT) prompt [63] enables complex reasoning capabilities through intermediate reasoning steps. Prompt engineering also enables the integration of structural data like knowledge graphs (KGs) into LLMs. Li et al. [64] simply linearizes the KGs and uses templates to convert the KGs into passages. Mindmap [65] designs a KG prompt to convert graph structure into a mind map that enables LLMs to perform reasoning on it. Prompt offers a simple way to utilize the potential of LLMs without finetuning. Proficiency in prompt engineering leads to a better understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of LLMs. <details> <summary>x3.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: LLM Sentiment Analysis ### Overview The image illustrates a diagram of a Large Language Model (LLM) performing sentiment analysis. It shows the input prompt, the LLM processing, and the output sentiment. The prompt consists of an instruction, context examples, and the input text to be analyzed. ### Components/Axes * **Output:** Located at the top of the diagram. The output is "Positive" within a white rounded rectangle. * **LLMs:** A yellow rounded rectangle representing the Large Language Models. * **Instruction:** A red label on the left side, pointing to a light red rounded rectangle containing the instruction: "Classify the text into neutral, negative or positive." * **Context:** A purple label on the left side, pointing to a light purple rounded rectangle containing example texts and their sentiments: * "Text: This is awesome! Sentiment: Positive" * "Text: This is bad! Sentiment: Negative" * **Input Text:** An orange label on the left side, pointing to a light orange rounded rectangle containing the input text: "Text: I think the vacation is okay. Sentiment:" * **Prompt:** A black label on the right side, indicating that the instruction, context, and input text together form the prompt. The prompt is enclosed by a dashed grey line. ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details The diagram shows the flow of information: 1. The prompt, consisting of the instruction, context, and input text, is fed into the LLM. 2. The LLM processes the input and generates an output sentiment. 3. The output sentiment in this case is "Positive". ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a typical prompt-based approach for sentiment analysis using LLMs. * The prompt includes an instruction, examples of text and sentiment pairs (context), and the input text for which the sentiment needs to be determined. * The LLM correctly identifies the sentiment of "I think the vacation is okay" as "Positive". ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how LLMs can be used for sentiment analysis by providing a clear instruction, relevant context, and the input text. The LLM uses the provided information to classify the sentiment of the input text. The example shows a successful sentiment classification, indicating the LLM's ability to understand and analyze text. </details> Figure 4: An example of sentiment classification prompt. <details> <summary>x4.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Knowledge Graph Examples ### Overview The image presents four examples of knowledge graphs, each representing a different type of knowledge: Encyclopedic, Commonsense, Domain-specific (Medical), and Multi-modal. Each graph consists of nodes (entities or concepts) and edges (relationships between them). ### Components/Axes * **Encyclopedic Knowledge Graphs:** * Nodes: Wikipedia (image of the Wikipedia logo), Barack Obama (green), Michelle Obama (green), USA (blue), Honolulu (purple), Washington D.C. (purple). * Edges: BornIn, PoliticianOf, MarriedTo, Liveln, LocatedIn, CapitalOf. * **Commonsense Knowledge Graphs:** * Nodes: Wake up (red), Bed (blue), Open eyes (blue), Get out of bed (blue), Drink coffee (blue), Awake (blue), Coffee (blue), Kitchen (blue), Sugar (blue), Cup (blue), Make coffe (blue), Drink (blue). * Edges: LocatedAt, SubeventOf, Causes, IsFor, Need, Is. * **Domain-specific Knowledge Graphs (Medical):** * Nodes: PINK1 (green), Parkinson's Disease (blue), Sleeping Disorder (blue), Anxiety (purple), Language Undevelopment (purple), Motor Symptom (purple), Tremor (purple), Pervasive Developmental Disorder (blue). * Edges: Cause, Lead. * **Multi-modal Knowledge Graphs:** * Nodes: Eiffel Tower (image of the Eiffel Tower), Paris (blue), France (blue), European Union (blue), Emmanuel Macron (image of Emmanuel Macron). * Edges: LocatedIn, CapitalOf, MemberOf, PoliticianOf, Liveln. ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details **1. Encyclopedic Knowledge Graphs:** * Wikipedia is connected to a graph representing facts about Barack Obama. * Barack Obama (green node) is connected to: * Honolulu (purple node) via "BornIn". * USA (blue node) via "PoliticianOf". * Michelle Obama (green node) via "MarriedTo". * Michelle Obama (green node) is connected to: * USA (blue node) via "Liveln". * USA (blue node) is connected to: * Honolulu (purple node) via "LocatedIn". * Washington D.C. (purple node) via "CapitalOf". **2. Commonsense Knowledge Graphs:** * The central concept is "Wake up" (red node). * "Wake up" (red node) is connected to: * Bed (blue node) via "LocatedAt". * Open eyes (blue node) via "SubeventOf". * Get out of bed (blue node) via "SubeventOf". * Drink coffee (blue node) via "SubeventOf". * "Drink coffee" (blue node) is connected to: * Awake (blue node) via "Causes". * Make coffe (blue node) via "SubeventOf". * "Coffee" (blue node) is connected to: * Kitchen (blue node) via "LocatedAt". * Sugar (blue node) via "Need". * Cup (blue node) via "Need". * Drink (blue node) via "Is". * "Make coffe" (blue node) is connected to: * Coffee (blue node) via "IsFor". **3. Domain-specific Knowledge Graphs (Medical):** * PINK1 (green node) is connected to Parkinson's Disease (blue node) via "Cause". * Parkinson's Disease (blue node) is connected to: * Sleeping Disorder (blue node) via "Cause". * Motor Symptom (purple node) via "Lead". * Tremor (purple node) via "Lead". * Sleeping Disorder (blue node) is connected to: * Anxiety (purple node) via "Cause". * Anxiety (purple node) is connected to: * Pervasive Developmental Disorder (blue node) via "Lead". * Pervasive Developmental Disorder (blue node) is connected to: * Language Undevelopment (purple node) via "Lead". **4. Multi-modal Knowledge Graphs:** * Eiffel Tower (image) is connected to Paris (blue node) via "LocatedIn". * Paris (blue node) is connected to: * France (blue node) via "CapitalOf". * Emmanuel Macron (image) via "Liveln". * France (blue node) is connected to: * European Union (blue node) via "MemberOf". * Emmanuel Macron (image) is connected to: * France (blue node) via "PoliticianOf". ### Key Observations * The nodes are color-coded, but the meaning of the colors is not explicitly stated. However, it appears that people are green, locations are purple, and concepts/entities are blue. The "Wake up" concept is red. * The edges represent relationships between the nodes. * The graphs vary in complexity and the type of knowledge they represent. ### Interpretation The image illustrates how knowledge graphs can be used to represent different types of information, from general facts (Encyclopedic) to common sense reasoning (Commonsense), specialized medical knowledge (Domain-specific), and information integrating images (Multi-modal). The connections between nodes highlight the relationships between entities and concepts, providing a structured way to represent and reason about knowledge. The use of different node colors may indicate different categories of entities, but this is not explicitly defined. The examples demonstrate the flexibility and versatility of knowledge graphs in capturing and organizing information across various domains. </details> Figure 5: Examples of different categories’ knowledge graphs, i.e., encyclopedic KGs, commonsense KGs, domain-specific KGs, and multi-modal KGs. 2.2 Knowledge Graphs (KGs) Knowledge graphs (KGs) store structured knowledge as a collection of triples $\mathcal{KG}=\{(h,r,t)⊂eq\mathcal{E}×\mathcal{R}×\mathcal{E}\}$ , where $\mathcal{E}$ and $\mathcal{R}$ respectively denote the set of entities and relations. Existing knowledge graphs (KGs) can be classified into four groups based on the stored information: 1) encyclopedic KGs, 2) commonsense KGs, 3) domain-specific KGs, and 4) multi-modal KGs. We illustrate the examples of KGs of different categories in Fig. 5. 2.2.1 Encyclopedic Knowledge Graphs. Encyclopedic knowledge graphs are the most ubiquitous KGs, which represent the general knowledge in real-world. Encyclopedic knowledge graphs are often constructed by integrating information from diverse and extensive sources, including human experts, encyclopedias, and databases. Wikidata [20] is one of the most widely used encyclopedic knowledge graphs, which incorporates varieties of knowledge extracted from articles on Wikipedia. Other typical encyclopedic knowledge graphs, like Freebase [66], Dbpedia [67], and YAGO [31] are also derived from Wikipedia. In addition, NELL [32] is a continuously improving encyclopedic knowledge graph, which automatically extracts knowledge from the web, and uses that knowledge to improve its performance over time. There are several encyclopedic knowledge graphs available in languages other than English such as CN-DBpedia [68] and Vikidia [69]. The largest knowledge graph, named Knowledge Occean (KO) https://ko.zhonghuapu.com/, currently contains 4,8784,3636 entities and 17,3115,8349 relations in both English and Chinese. 2.2.2 Commonsense Knowledge Graphs. Commonsense knowledge graphs formulate the knowledge about daily concepts, e.g., objects, and events, as well as their relationships [70]. Compared with encyclopedic knowledge graphs, commonsense knowledge graphs often model the tacit knowledge extracted from text such as (Car, UsedFor, Drive). ConceptNet [71] contains a wide range of commonsense concepts and relations, which can help computers understand the meanings of words people use. ATOMIC [72, 73] and ASER [74] focus on the causal effects between events, which can be used for commonsense reasoning. Some other commonsense knowledge graphs, such as TransOMCS [75] and CausalBanK [76] are automatically constructed to provide commonsense knowledge. 2.2.3 Domain-specific Knowledge Graphs Domain-specific knowledge graphs are often constructed to represent knowledge in a specific domain, e.g., medical, biology, and finance [23]. Compared with encyclopedic knowledge graphs, domain-specific knowledge graphs are often smaller in size, but more accurate and reliable. For example, UMLS [77] is a domain-specific knowledge graph in the medical domain, which contains biomedical concepts and their relationships. In addition, there are some domain-specific knowledge graphs in other domains, such as finance [78], geology [79], biology [80], chemistry [81] and genealogy [82]. <details> <summary>x5.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: LLM and KG Synergies ### Overview The image presents three diagrams illustrating different ways Large Language Models (LLMs) and Knowledge Graphs (KGs) can be integrated. The diagrams depict KG-enhanced LLMs, LLM-augmented KGs, and synergized LLMs + KGs, showing the flow of information and the types of knowledge each component contributes. ### Components/Axes * **Diagram a. KG-enhanced LLMs:** * Input: "Text Input" with an arrow pointing to the left into the LLMs block. * Top Block: "KGs" (light blue rounded rectangle) * List of characteristics: * Structural Fact * Domain-specific Knowledge * Symbolic-reasoning * .... (more items not specified) * Arrow pointing down from the KGs block to the LLMs block. * Bottom Block: "LLMs" (light yellow rounded rectangle) * Output: "Output" with an arrow pointing to the right from the LLMs block. * **Diagram b. LLM-augmented KGs:** * Input: "KG-related Tasks" with an arrow pointing to the left into the KGs block. * Top Block: "LLMs" (light yellow rounded rectangle) * List of characteristics: * General Knowledge * Language Processing * Generalizability * .... (more items not specified) * Arrow pointing down from the LLMs block to the KGs block. * Bottom Block: "KGs" (light blue rounded rectangle) * Output: "Output" with an arrow pointing to the right from the KGs block. * **Diagram c. Synergized LLMs + KGs:** * Left Block: "LLMs" (light yellow rounded rectangle) * Right Block: "KGs" (light blue rounded rectangle) * Top Arrow: A light blue arrow labeled "Factual Knowledge" pointing from the KGs block to the LLMs block. * Bottom Arrow: A light orange arrow labeled "Knowledge Representation" pointing from the LLMs block to the KGs block. ### Detailed Analysis * **KG-enhanced LLMs (a):** This diagram shows KGs providing structural facts, domain-specific knowledge, and symbolic reasoning to LLMs. Text input goes into the LLMs, which are enhanced by the knowledge from the KGs, resulting in an output. * **LLM-augmented KGs (b):** This diagram shows LLMs providing general knowledge, language processing, and generalizability to KGs. KG-related tasks are input into the KGs, which are augmented by the capabilities of the LLMs, resulting in an output. * **Synergized LLMs + KGs (c):** This diagram illustrates a synergistic relationship between LLMs and KGs. Factual knowledge flows from KGs to LLMs, while knowledge representation flows from LLMs to KGs, creating a feedback loop. ### Key Observations * The diagrams highlight the complementary strengths of LLMs and KGs. * LLMs are shown to provide general knowledge and language processing capabilities. * KGs are shown to provide structured and domain-specific knowledge. * The synergized approach suggests a bidirectional flow of information between LLMs and KGs. ### Interpretation The diagrams illustrate three different approaches to integrating LLMs and KGs. The first two approaches, KG-enhanced LLMs and LLM-augmented KGs, represent unidirectional flows of information, where one component enhances the other. The third approach, synergized LLMs + KGs, represents a bidirectional flow of information, where the two components work together to create a more powerful system. This suggests that a synergistic approach may be the most effective way to leverage the strengths of both LLMs and KGs. The diagrams suggest that by combining the strengths of LLMs and KGs, it is possible to create systems that are more knowledgeable, more accurate, and more efficient. </details> Figure 6: The general roadmap of unifying KGs and LLMs. (a.) KG-enhanced LLMs. (b.) LLM-augmented KGs. (c.) Synergized LLMs + KGs. 2.2.4 Multi-modal Knowledge Graphs. Unlike conventional knowledge graphs that only contain textual information, multi-modal knowledge graphs represent facts in multiple modalities such as images, sounds, and videos [83]. For example, IMGpedia [84], MMKG [85], and Richpedia [86] incorporate both the text and image information into the knowledge graphs. These knowledge graphs can be used for various multi-modal tasks such as image-text matching [87], visual question answering [88], and recommendation [89]. TABLE I: Representative applications of using LLMs and KGs. | ChatGPT/GPT-4 | Chat Bot | ✓ | | https://shorturl.at/cmsE0 | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | ERNIE 3.0 | Chat Bot | ✓ | ✓ | https://shorturl.at/sCLV9 | | Bard | Chat Bot | ✓ | ✓ | https://shorturl.at/pDLY6 | | Firefly | Photo Editing | ✓ | | https://shorturl.at/fkzJV | | AutoGPT | AI Assistant | ✓ | | https://shorturl.at/bkoSY | | Copilot | Coding Assistant | ✓ | | https://shorturl.at/lKLUV | | New Bing | Web Search | ✓ | | https://shorturl.at/bimps | | Shop.ai | Recommendation | ✓ | | https://shorturl.at/alCY7 | | Wikidata | Knowledge Base | | ✓ | https://shorturl.at/lyMY5 | | KO | Knowledge Base | | ✓ | https://shorturl.at/sx238 | | OpenBG | Recommendation | | ✓ | https://shorturl.at/pDMV9 | | Doctor.ai | Health Care Assistant | ✓ | ✓ | https://shorturl.at/dhlK0 | 2.3 Applications LLMs as KGs have been widely applied in various real-world applications. We summarize some representative applications of using LLMs and KGs in Table I. ChatGPT/GPT-4 are LLM-based chatbots that can communicate with humans in a natural dialogue format. To improve knowledge awareness of LLMs, ERNIE 3.0 and Bard incorporate KGs into their chatbot applications. Instead of Chatbot. Firefly develops a photo editing application that allows users to edit photos by using natural language descriptions. Copilot, New Bing, and Shop.ai adopt LLMs to empower their applications in the areas of coding assistant, web search, and recommendation, respectively. Wikidata and KO are two representative knowledge graph applications that are used to provide external knowledge. OpenBG [90] is a knowledge graph designed for recommendation. Doctor.ai develops a health care assistant that incorporates LLMs and KGs to provide medical advice. 3 Roadmap & Categorization In this section, we first present a road map of explicit frameworks that unify LLMs and KGs. Then, we present the categorization of research on unifying LLMs and KGs. 3.1 Roadmap The roadmap of unifying KGs and LLMs is illustrated in Fig. 6. In the roadmap, we identify three frameworks for the unification of LLMs and KGs, including KG-enhanced LLMs, LLM-augmented KGs, and Synergized LLMs + KGs. The KG-enhanced LLMs and LLM-augmented KGs are two parallel frameworks that aim to enhance the capabilities of LLMs and KGs, respectively. Building upon these frameworks, Synergized LLMs + KGs is a unified framework that aims to synergize LLMs and KGs to mutually enhance each other. 3.1.1 KG-enhanced LLMs LLMs are renowned for their ability to learn knowledge from large-scale corpus and achieve state-of-the-art performance in various NLP tasks. However, LLMs are often criticized for their hallucination issues [15], and lacking of interpretability. To address these issues, researchers have proposed to enhance LLMs with knowledge graphs (KGs). KGs store enormous knowledge in an explicit and structured way, which can be used to enhance the knowledge awareness of LLMs. Some researchers have proposed to incorporate KGs into LLMs during the pre-training stage, which can help LLMs learn knowledge from KGs [35, 91]. Other researchers have proposed to incorporate KGs into LLMs during the inference stage. By retrieving knowledge from KGs, it can significantly improve the performance of LLMs in accessing domain-specific knowledge [92]. To improve the interpretability of LLMs, researchers also utilize KGs to interpret the facts [14] and the reasoning process of LLMs [38]. 3.1.2 LLM-augmented KGs KGs store structure knowledge playing an essential role in many real-word applications [19]. Existing methods in KGs fall short of handling incomplete KGs [33] and processing text corpus to construct KGs [93]. With the generalizability of LLMs, many researchers are trying to harness the power of LLMs for addressing KG-related tasks. The most straightforward way to apply LLMs as text encoders for KG-related tasks. Researchers take advantage of LLMs to process the textual corpus in the KGs and then use the representations of the text to enrich KGs representation [94]. Some studies also use LLMs to process the original corpus and extract relations and entities for KG construction [95]. Recent studies try to design a KG prompt that can effectively convert structural KGs into a format that can be comprehended by LLMs. In this way, LLMs can be directly applied to KG-related tasks, e.g., KG completion [96] and KG reasoning [97]. <details> <summary>x6.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Synergized Model Architecture ### Overview The image presents a layered diagram illustrating a synergized model architecture, showcasing the interplay between different components such as data, techniques, and applications. The core of the diagram focuses on the interaction between Large Language Models (LLMs) and Knowledge Graphs (KGs). ### Components/Axes * **Layers (from bottom to top):** * Data * Synergized Model * Technique * Application * **Data Layer:** Contains data types used as input. * Structural Fact * Text Corpus * Image * Video * "..." indicating more data types * **Synergized Model Layer:** Depicts the interaction between LLMs and KGs. * LLMs (yellow rectangle): Associated with General Knowledge, Language Processing, and Generalizability. * KGs (light blue rectangle): Associated with Explicit Knowledge, Domain-specific Knowledge, Decisiveness, and Interpretability. * A blue arrow points from LLMs to KGs. * An orange arrow points from KGs to LLMs. * **Technique Layer:** Lists techniques used in the model. * Prompt Engineering * Graph Neural Network * In-context Learning * Representation Learning * Neural-symbolic Reasoning * Few-shot Learning * **Application Layer:** Lists applications of the model. * Search Engine * Recommender System * Dialogue System * AI Assistant * "..." indicating more applications ### Detailed Analysis * **Data Layer:** The data layer forms the foundation, providing various data types to the model. * **Synergized Model Layer:** LLMs and KGs are central, with arrows indicating a bidirectional flow of information. LLMs provide general knowledge and language processing capabilities, while KGs offer explicit and domain-specific knowledge. * **Technique Layer:** The techniques listed are used to train and optimize the model. * **Application Layer:** The applications demonstrate the potential use cases of the synergized model. ### Key Observations * The diagram emphasizes the synergy between LLMs and KGs, suggesting a collaborative relationship. * The layered structure highlights the flow of information from data to applications. * The "..." in the Data and Application layers indicate that the listed components are not exhaustive. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a comprehensive architecture where LLMs and KGs are integrated to leverage their respective strengths. LLMs bring general knowledge and language processing, while KGs provide structured, domain-specific information. This synergy enhances the model's capabilities, leading to improved performance in various applications. The bidirectional flow between LLMs and KGs suggests an iterative process where each component refines the other's knowledge. The architecture aims to combine the broad understanding of LLMs with the precise knowledge representation of KGs, resulting in a more robust and versatile model. </details> Figure 7: The general framework of the Synergized LLMs + KGs, which contains four layers: 1) Data, 2) Synergized Model, 3) Technique, and 4) Application. 3.1.3 Synergized LLMs + KGs The synergy of LLMs and KGs has attracted increasing attention from researchers these years [40, 42]. LLMs and KGs are two inherently complementary techniques, which should be unified into a general framework to mutually enhance each other. To further explore the unification, we propose a unified framework of the synergized LLMs + KGs in Fig. 7. The unified framework contains four layers: 1) Data, 2) Synergized Model, 3) Technique, and 4) Application. In the Data layer, LLMs and KGs are used to process the textual and structural data, respectively. With the development of multi-modal LLMs [98] and KGs [99], this framework can be extended to process multi-modal data, such as video, audio, and images. In the Synergized Model layer, LLMs and KGs could synergize with each other to improve their capabilities. In Technique layer, related techniques that have been used in LLMs and KGs can be incorporated into this framework to further enhance the performance. In the Application layer, LLMs and KGs can be integrated to address various real-world applications, such as search engines [100], recommender systems [10], and AI assistants [101]. <details> <summary>x7.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Mind Map: LLMs Meet KGs ### Overview The image is a mind map illustrating different ways Large Language Models (LLMs) and Knowledge Graphs (KGs) can be combined and synergized. The central topic is "LLMs Meet KGs," which branches out into three main categories: "KG-enhanced LLMs," "LLM-augmented KGs," and "Synergized LLMs + KGs." Each of these categories further branches out into specific techniques, applications, or methods. ### Components/Axes * **Central Topic:** LLMs Meet KGs (dark blue rectangle, left side) * **Main Branches:** * KG-enhanced LLMs (gold rectangle, top-right) * LLM-augmented KGs (light blue rectangle, center-right) * Synergized LLMs + KGs (teal rectangle, bottom) * **Sub-Branches (KG-enhanced LLMs):** * KG-enhanced LLM pre-training * Integrating KGs into training objective * Integrating KGs into LLM inputs * KGs Instruction-tuning * KG-enhanced LLM inference * Retrieval-augmented knowledge fusion * KGs Prompting * KG-enhanced LLM interpretability * KGs for LLM probing * KGs for LLM analysis * **Sub-Branches (LLM-augmented KGs):** * LLM-augmented KG embedding * LLMs as text encoders * LLMs for joint text and KG embedding * LLM-augmented KG completion * LLMs as encoders * LLMs as generators * LLM-augmented KG construction * Entity discovery * Relation extraction * Coreference resolution * End-to-End KG construction * Distilling KGs from LLMs * LLM-augmented KG to text generation * Leveraging knowledge from LLMs * LLMs for constructing KG-text aligned Corpus * LLM-augmented KG question answering * LLMs as entity/relation extractors * LLMs as answer reasoners * **Sub-Branches (Synergized LLMs + KGs):** * Synergized Knowledge Representation * Synergized Reasoning * LLM-KG fusion reasoning * LLMs as agents reasoning ### Detailed Analysis or Content Details * **KG-enhanced LLMs:** This branch focuses on using Knowledge Graphs to improve the performance and capabilities of LLMs. * **KG-enhanced LLM pre-training:** Includes integrating KGs into the training objective, using KGs as inputs, and KGs for instruction tuning. * **KG-enhanced LLM inference:** Includes retrieval-augmented knowledge fusion and KG prompting. * **KG-enhanced LLM interpretability:** Includes using KGs for LLM probing and analysis. * **LLM-augmented KGs:** This branch focuses on using LLMs to enhance the creation, completion, and utilization of Knowledge Graphs. * **LLM-augmented KG embedding:** Uses LLMs as text encoders and for joint text and KG embedding. * **LLM-augmented KG completion:** Uses LLMs as encoders and generators. * **LLM-augmented KG construction:** Uses LLMs for entity discovery, relation extraction, coreference resolution, end-to-end KG construction, and distilling KGs from LLMs. * **LLM-augmented KG to text generation:** Leverages knowledge from LLMs and uses LLMs for constructing KG-text aligned corpus. * **LLM-augmented KG question answering:** Uses LLMs as entity/relation extractors and as answer reasoners. * **Synergized LLMs + KGs:** This branch focuses on approaches where LLMs and KGs work together in a more tightly integrated manner. * **Synergized Knowledge Representation:** Implies a unified or combined representation of knowledge. * **Synergized Reasoning:** Includes LLM-KG fusion reasoning and LLMs as agents reasoning. ### Key Observations * The mind map provides a structured overview of the intersection between LLMs and KGs. * It highlights three main approaches: enhancing LLMs with KGs, augmenting KGs with LLMs, and synergizing both. * Each approach has several sub-categories, indicating the diverse ways in which LLMs and KGs can be combined. ### Interpretation The mind map illustrates the growing interest and research in combining LLMs and KGs. It demonstrates that KGs can be used to improve LLMs in various ways, such as enhancing pre-training, inference, and interpretability. Conversely, LLMs can be used to augment KGs by improving embedding, completion, construction, and question answering. The "Synergized LLMs + KGs" category suggests a trend towards more tightly integrated systems where LLMs and KGs work together to achieve more complex tasks. The map suggests that the integration of LLMs and KGs is a promising area of research with the potential to create more powerful and versatile AI systems. </details> Figure 8: Fine-grained categorization of research on unifying large language models (LLMs) with knowledge graphs (KGs). 3.2 Categorization To better understand the research on unifying LLMs and KGs, we further provide a fine-grained categorization for each framework in the roadmap. Specifically, we focus on different ways of integrating KGs and LLMs, i.e., KG-enhanced LLMs, KG-augmented LLMs, and Synergized LLMs + KGs. The fine-grained categorization of the research is illustrated in Fig. 8. KG-enhanced LLMs. Integrating KGs can enhance the performance and interpretability of LLMs in various downstream tasks. We categorize the research on KG-enhanced LLMs into three groups: 1. KG-enhanced LLM pre-training includes works that apply KGs during the pre-training stage and improve the knowledge expression of LLMs. 1. KG-enhanced LLM inference includes research that utilizes KGs during the inference stage of LLMs, which enables LLMs to access the latest knowledge without retraining. 1. KG-enhanced LLM interpretability includes works that use KGs to understand the knowledge learned by LLMs and interpret the reasoning process of LLMs. LLM-augmented KGs. LLMs can be applied to augment various KG-related tasks. We categorize the research on LLM-augmented KGs into five groups based on the task types: 1. LLM-augmented KG embedding includes studies that apply LLMs to enrich representations of KGs by encoding the textual descriptions of entities and relations. 1. LLM-augmented KG completion includes papers that utilize LLMs to encode text or generate facts for better KGC performance. 1. LLM-augmented KG construction includes works that apply LLMs to address the entity discovery, coreference resolution, and relation extraction tasks for KG construction. 1. LLM-augmented KG-to-text Generation includes research that utilizes LLMs to generate natural language that describes the facts from KGs. 1. LLM-augmented KG question answering includes studies that apply LLMs to bridge the gap between natural language questions and retrieve answers from KGs. Synergized LLMs + KGs. The synergy of LLMs and KGs aims to integrate LLMs and KGs into a unified framework to mutually enhance each other. In this categorization, we review the recent attempts of Synergized LLMs + KGs from the perspectives of knowledge representation and reasoning. In the following sections (Sec 4, 5, and 6), we will provide details on these categorizations. 4 KG-enhanced LLMs Large language models (LLMs) achieve promising results in many natural language processing tasks. However, LLMs have been criticized for their lack of practical knowledge and tendency to generate factual errors during inference. To address this issue, researchers have proposed integrating knowledge graphs (KGs) to enhance LLMs. In this section, we first introduce the KG-enhanced LLM pre-training, which aims to inject knowledge into LLMs during the pre-training stage. Then, we introduce the KG-enhanced LLM inference, which enables LLMs to consider the latest knowledge while generating sentences. Finally, we introduce the KG-enhanced LLM interpretability, which aims to improve the interpretability of LLMs by using KGs. Table II summarizes the typical methods that integrate KGs for LLMs. TABLE II: Summary of KG-enhanced LLM methods. [b] Task Method Year KG Technique KG-enhanced LLM pre-training ERNIE [35] 2019 E Integrating KGs into Training Objective GLM [102] 2020 C Integrating KGs into Training Objective Ebert [103] 2020 D Integrating KGs into Training Objective KEPLER [40] 2021 E Integrating KGs into Training Objective Deterministic LLM [104] 2022 E Integrating KGs into Training Objective KALA [105] 2022 D Integrating KGs into Training Objective WKLM [106] 2020 E Integrating KGs into Training Objective K-BERT [36] 2020 E + D Integrating KGs into Language Model Inputs CoLAKE [107] 2020 E Integrating KGs into Language Model Inputs ERNIE3.0 [101] 2021 E + D Integrating KGs into Language Model Inputs DkLLM [108] 2022 E Integrating KGs into Language Model Inputs KP-PLM [109] 2022 E KGs Instruction-tuning OntoPrompt [110] 2022 E + D KGs Instruction-tuning ChatKBQA [111] 2023 E KGs Instruction-tuning RoG [112] 2023 E KGs Instruction-tuning KG-enhanced LLM inference KGLM [113] 2019 E Retrival-augmented knowledge fusion REALM [114] 2020 E Retrival-augmented knowledge fusion RAG [92] 2020 E Retrival-augmented knowledge fusion EMAT [115] 2022 E Retrival-augmented knowledge fusion Li et al. [64] 2023 C KGs Prompting Mindmap [65] 2023 E + D KGs Prompting ChatRule [116] 2023 E + D KGs Prompting CoK [117] 2023 E + C + D KGs Prompting KG-enhanced LLM interpretability LAMA [14] 2019 E KGs for LLM probing LPAQA [118] 2020 E KGs for LLM probing Autoprompt [119] 2020 E KGs for LLM probing MedLAMA [120] 2022 D KGs for LLM probing LLM-facteval [121] 2023 E + D KGs for LLM probing KagNet [38] 2019 C KGs for LLM analysis Interpret-lm [122] 2021 E KGs for LLM analysis knowledge-neurons [39] 2021 E KGs for LLM analysis Shaobo et al. [123] 2022 E KGs for LLM analysis - E: Encyclopedic Knowledge Graphs, C: Commonsense Knowledge Graphs, D: Domain-Specific Knowledge Graphs. 4.1 KG-enhanced LLM Pre-training Existing large language models mostly rely on unsupervised training on the large-scale corpus. While these models may exhibit impressive performance on downstream tasks, they often lack practical knowledge relevant to the real world. Previous works that integrate KGs into large language models can be categorized into three parts: 1) Integrating KGs into training objective, 2) Integrating KGs into LLM inputs, and 3) KGs Instruction-tuning. 4.1.1 Integrating KGs into Training Objective The research efforts in this category focus on designing novel knowledge-aware training objectives. An intuitive idea is to expose more knowledge entities in the pre-training objective. GLM [102] leverages the knowledge graph structure to assign a masking probability. Specifically, entities that can be reached within a certain number of hops are considered to be the most important entities for learning, and they are given a higher masking probability during pre-training. Furthermore, E-BERT [103] further controls the balance between the token-level and entity-level training losses. The training loss values are used as indications of the learning process for token and entity, which dynamically determines their ratio for the next training epochs. SKEP [124] also follows a similar fusion to inject sentiment knowledge during LLMs pre-training. SKEP first determines words with positive and negative sentiment by utilizing PMI along with a predefined set of seed sentiment words. Then, it assigns a higher masking probability to those identified sentiment words in the word masking objective. The other line of work explicitly leverages the connections with knowledge and input text. As shown in Fig. 9, ERNIE [35] proposes a novel word-entity alignment training objective as a pre-training objective. Specifically, ERNIE feeds both sentences and corresponding entities mentioned in the text into LLMs, and then trains the LLMs to predict alignment links between textual tokens and entities in knowledge graphs. Similarly, KALM [91] enhances the input tokens by incorporating entity embeddings and includes an entity prediction pre-training task in addition to the token-only pre-training objective. This approach aims to improve the ability of LLMs to capture knowledge related to entities. Finally, KEPLER [40] directly employs both knowledge graph embedding training objective and Masked token pre-training objective into a shared transformer-based encoder. Deterministic LLM [104] focuses on pre-training language models to capture deterministic factual knowledge. It only masks the span that has a deterministic entity as the question and introduces additional clue contrast learning and clue classification objective. WKLM [106] first replaces entities in the text with other same-type entities and then feeds them into LLMs. The model is further pre-trained to distinguish whether the entities have been replaced or not. <details> <summary>x8.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Text-Knowledge Alignment using LLMs ### Overview The image is a diagram illustrating how Large Language Models (LLMs) perform text-knowledge alignment. It shows the flow of information from an input text sequence to text representations and knowledge graph representations, with LLMs acting as the central processing unit. ### Components/Axes * **Title:** Text-knowledge Alignment * **Top-Left:** Text Representations * Nodes: h1, h2, h3, h4, ..., h9 (yellow rounded rectangles) * **Top-Right:** Knowledge Graph Representations * Nodes: he1, he2 (blue rounded rectangles) * **Center:** LLMs (yellow rounded rectangle) * **Bottom-Left:** Text Sequence * Nodes: Bob, Dylan, wrote, blowin, ..., 1962 (yellow rounded rectangles) * **Bottom-Right:** Entity * Nodes: Bob Dylan, Blowin' in the Wind (blue rounded rectangles) * **Input Text:** Bob Dylan wrote Blowin' in the Wind in 1962 ### Detailed Analysis * **Text Sequence to LLMs:** The words "Bob", "Dylan", "wrote", "blowin", "...", and "1962" from the text sequence are represented as individual nodes. Arrows point upwards from each of these nodes to the "LLMs" block, indicating that these words are fed into the LLM. * **LLMs to Text Representations:** The LLMs process the input text and generate text representations, denoted as h1, h2, h3, h4, ..., h9. Arrows point upwards from the "LLMs" block to each of these nodes. * **LLMs to Knowledge Graph Representations:** The LLMs also generate knowledge graph representations, denoted as he1 and he2. Arrows point upwards from the "LLMs" block to each of these nodes. * **Text Representations to Knowledge Graph Representations:** Dashed arrows connect the text representations (h1, h2, h3, h4, h9) to the knowledge graph representations (he1, he2), indicating an alignment or mapping between the two. * **Entity Representation:** The entities "Bob Dylan" and "Blowin' in the Wind" are represented as nodes, with arrows pointing upwards from the "LLMs" block to each of these nodes. ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a process where an input text is processed by LLMs to generate both text representations and knowledge graph representations. * The dashed arrows indicate a crucial alignment step between the text representations and the knowledge graph representations. * The entities extracted from the text are explicitly represented in the knowledge graph. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how LLMs can be used to bridge the gap between textual information and structured knowledge. By processing the input text, the LLM generates text representations that capture the meaning of the words and phrases. Simultaneously, it extracts entities and relationships from the text to construct a knowledge graph representation. The alignment between these two representations allows the LLM to reason about the text in a more informed and contextualized manner. This process is crucial for tasks such as question answering, information retrieval, and knowledge discovery, where understanding the underlying meaning and relationships within the text is essential. The diagram highlights the ability of LLMs to not only understand text but also to connect it to a broader knowledge base. </details> Figure 9: Injecting KG information into LLMs training objective via text-knowledge alignment loss, where $h$ denotes the hidden representation generated by LLMs. 4.1.2 Integrating KGs into LLM Inputs As shown in Fig. 10, this kind of research focus on introducing relevant knowledge sub-graph into the inputs of LLMs. Given a knowledge graph triple and the corresponding sentences, ERNIE 3.0 [101] represents the triple as a sequence of tokens and directly concatenates them with the sentences. It further randomly masks either the relation token in the triple or tokens in the sentences to better combine knowledge with textual representations. However, such direct knowledge triple concatenation method allows the tokens in the sentence to intensively interact with the tokens in the knowledge sub-graph, which could result in Knowledge Noise [36]. To solve this issue, K-BERT [36] takes the first step to inject the knowledge triple into the sentence via a visible matrix where only the knowledge entities have access to the knowledge triple information, while the tokens in the sentences can only see each other in the self-attention module. To further reduce Knowledge Noise, Colake [107] proposes a unified word-knowledge graph (shown in Fig. 10) where the tokens in the input sentences form a fully connected word graph where tokens aligned with knowledge entities are connected with their neighboring entities. The above methods can indeed inject a large amount of knowledge into LLMs. However, they mostly focus on popular entities and overlook the low-frequent and long-tail ones. DkLLM [108] aims to improve the LLMs representations towards those entities. DkLLM first proposes a novel measurement to determine long-tail entities and then replaces these selected entities in the text with pseudo token embedding as new input to the large language models. Furthermore, Dict-BERT [125] proposes to leverage external dictionaries to solve this issue. Specifically, Dict-BERT improves the representation quality of rare words by appending their definitions from the dictionary at the end of input text and trains the language model to locally align rare word representations in input sentences and dictionary definitions as well as to discriminate whether the input text and definition are correctly mapped. <details> <summary>x9.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: LLM Text and Entity Prediction with Knowledge Graph ### Overview The image illustrates how Large Language Models (LLMs) can be used for both text and entity prediction, leveraging a knowledge graph derived from an input text. The diagram shows the flow of information from the input text, through the knowledge graph, to the LLMs, and finally to the predicted text and entities. ### Components/Axes * **Input Text:** "Mr. Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter" * **Text Graph:** A network of nodes representing words from the input text, with edges indicating relationships between them. Nodes are colored yellow, except for "Elizabeth" which is half yellow and half blue. * **Knowledge Graph:** A network of nodes representing entities and their relationships. Nodes are colored blue. * **LLMs:** A yellow rectangular block representing Large Language Models. * **Text Sequence:** A sequence of nodes derived from the text graph, feeding into the LLMs. Nodes are colored yellow. * **Entity Sequence:** A sequence of nodes derived from the knowledge graph, feeding into the LLMs. Nodes are colored blue. * **Mask Text Prediction:** The output of the LLMs, predicting masked words in the text sequence. The predicted word is "letter" (yellow). * **Mask Entity Prediction:** The output of the LLMs, predicting masked entities in the entity sequence. The predicted entity is "Mr. Bennet" (blue). ### Detailed Analysis * **Input Text:** The input text is "Mr. Darcy gives Elizabeth a letter". * **Text Graph:** * Nodes: "a", "gives", "Mr. Darcy", "letter", "Elizabeth" * Edges: All nodes are interconnected. * **Knowledge Graph:** * Nodes: "Mother", "Jane", "Beloved", "Father", "Mr. Bennet", "Mr. Darcy", "Elizabeth" * Edges: * "Mr. Darcy" is connected to "Mother" and "Beloved". * "Elizabeth" is connected to "Father" and "Mr. Darcy". * "Mother" is connected to "Jane". * "Father" is connected to "Mr. Bennet". * **Text Sequence:** * Nodes: "Mr. Darcy" (yellow), "..." (yellow), "[MASK]" (yellow) * **Entity Sequence:** * Nodes: "Mother" (blue), "..." (blue), "[MASK]" (blue) * **Mask Text Prediction:** Predicts "letter" (yellow). * **Mask Entity Prediction:** Predicts "Mr. Bennet" (blue). ### Key Observations * The diagram shows a clear flow of information from the input text to the LLMs. * The text graph and knowledge graph represent different aspects of the input text. * The LLMs are used to predict both text and entities. * The color coding (yellow for text, blue for entities) helps to distinguish between the different types of information. * "Elizabeth" is represented as half yellow and half blue, suggesting it is both a text element and an entity. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a system where an input text is processed to create both a text graph and a knowledge graph. These graphs are then used to generate text and entity sequences, which are fed into LLMs. The LLMs predict masked words and entities, demonstrating their ability to understand and generate both text and knowledge. The connection between the text graph and knowledge graph allows the LLMs to leverage both textual and semantic information for prediction. The use of masking suggests a pre-training or fine-tuning task where the LLM learns to fill in missing information based on context. The diagram highlights the potential of LLMs to integrate textual and knowledge-based information for various natural language processing tasks. </details> Figure 10: Injecting KG information into LLMs inputs using graph structure. 4.1.3 KGs Instruction-tuning Instead of injecting factual knowledge into LLMs, the KGs Instruction-tuning aims to fine-tune LLMs to better comprehend the structure of KGs and effectively follow user instructions to conduct complex tasks. KGs Instruction-tuning utilizes both facts and the structure of KGs to create instruction-tuning datasets. LLMs finetuned on these datasets can extract both factual and structural knowledge from KGs, enhancing the reasoning ability of LLMs. KP-PLM [109] first designs several prompt templates to transfer structural graphs into natural language text. Then, two self-supervised tasks are proposed to finetune LLMs to further leverage the knowledge from these prompts. OntoPrompt [110] proposes an ontology-enhanced prompt-tuning that can place knowledge of entities into the context of LLMs, which are further finetuned on several downstream tasks. ChatKBQA [111] finetunes LLMs on KG structure to generate logical queries, which can be executed on KGs to obtain answers. To better reason on graphs, RoG [112] presents a planning-retrieval-reasoning framework. RoG is finetuned on KG structure to generate relation paths grounded by KGs as faithful plans. These plans are then used to retrieve valid reasoning paths from the KGs for LLMs to conduct faithful reasoning and generate interpretable results. KGs Instruction-tuning can better leverage the knowledge from KGs for downstream tasks. However, it requires retraining the models, which is time-consuming and requires lots of resources. 4.2 KG-enhanced LLM Inference The above methods could effectively fuse knowledge into LLMs. However, real-world knowledge is subject to change and the limitation of these approaches is that they do not permit updates to the incorporated knowledge without retraining the model. As a result, they may not generalize well to the unseen knowledge during inference [126]. Therefore, considerable research has been devoted to keeping the knowledge space and text space separate and injecting the knowledge while inference. These methods mostly focus on the Question Answering (QA) tasks, because QA requires the model to capture both textual semantic meanings and up-to-date real-world knowledge. 4.2.1 Retrieval-Augmented Knowledge Fusion Retrieval-Augmented Knowledge Fusion is a popular method to inject knowledge into LLMs during inference. The key idea is to retrieve relevant knowledge from a large corpus and then fuse the retrieved knowledge into LLMs. As shown in Fig. 11, RAG [92] proposes to combine non-parametric and parametric modules to handle the external knowledge. Given the input text, RAG first searches for relevant KG in the non-parametric module via MIPS to obtain several documents. RAG then treats these documents as hidden variables $z$ and feeds them into the output generator, empowered by Seq2Seq LLMs, as additional context information. The research indicates that using different retrieved documents as conditions at different generation steps performs better than only using a single document to guide the whole generation process. The experimental results show that RAG outperforms other parametric-only and non-parametric-only baseline models in open-domain QA. RAG can also generate more specific, diverse, and factual text than other parameter-only baselines. Story-fragments [127] further improves architecture by adding an additional module to determine salient knowledge entities and fuse them into the generator to improve the quality of generated long stories. EMAT [115] further improves the efficiency of such a system by encoding external knowledge into a key-value memory and exploiting the fast maximum inner product search for memory querying. REALM [114] proposes a novel knowledge retriever to help the model to retrieve and attend over documents from a large corpus during the pre-training stage and successfully improves the performance of open-domain question answering. KGLM [113] selects the facts from a knowledge graph using the current context to generate factual sentences. With the help of an external knowledge graph, KGLM could describe facts using out-of-domain words or phrases. <details> <summary>x10.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Retrieval with LLMs ### Overview The image is a diagram illustrating a knowledge retrieval process using Large Language Models (LLMs). It shows how a question is processed, facts are retrieved from Knowledge Graphs (KGs), and an answer is generated by the LLMs, with a backpropagation loop for refinement. ### Components/Axes * **KGs:** A blue rounded rectangle at the top, representing Knowledge Graphs. * **Knowledge Retriever:** A white rounded rectangle in the center-left, responsible for retrieving relevant facts. * **Retrieved Facts:** Two blue rounded rectangles containing facts: "(Obama, BornIn, Honolulu)" and "(Honolulu, LocatedIn, USA)". An ellipsis "..." indicates more facts may be retrieved. * **LLMs:** A yellow rounded rectangle on the right, representing Large Language Models. * **Q: Which country is Obama from?:** The question being asked, positioned to the left of the Knowledge Retriever. * **A: USA:** The answer provided by the LLMs, positioned to the right of the LLMs. * **Backpropagation:** A dashed line indicating the flow of information for model refinement, connecting the LLMs and Knowledge Retriever. ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details 1. **Question Input:** The process begins with the question "Q: Which country is Obama from?". 2. **Knowledge Retrieval:** The Knowledge Retriever uses the KGs to find relevant facts. 3. **Retrieved Facts:** The retrieved facts include: * "(Obama, BornIn, Honolulu)" * "(Honolulu, LocatedIn, USA)" * "..." (representing additional facts) 4. **LLM Processing:** The LLMs process the retrieved facts to generate an answer. 5. **Answer Output:** The LLMs output the answer "A: USA". 6. **Backpropagation:** A backpropagation loop connects the LLMs and the Knowledge Retriever, suggesting a mechanism for refining the retrieval process based on the LLM's performance. ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a pipeline where a question is answered by retrieving facts from a knowledge graph and processing them with a large language model. * The backpropagation loop suggests an iterative process where the knowledge retrieval is refined based on the LLM's output. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates a system that leverages knowledge graphs and large language models to answer questions. The process involves retrieving relevant facts from the knowledge graph, feeding them into the LLM, and generating an answer. The backpropagation loop indicates a learning mechanism where the system can improve its knowledge retrieval based on the accuracy of the LLM's answers. This architecture highlights the integration of structured knowledge (KGs) with the reasoning capabilities of LLMs to enhance question-answering performance. </details> Figure 11: Retrieving external knowledge to enhance the LLM generation. 4.2.2 KGs Prompting To better feed the KG structure into the LLM during inference, KGs prompting aims to design a crafted prompt that converts structured KGs into text sequences, which can be fed as context into LLMs. In this way, LLMs can better take advantage of the structure of KGs to perform reasoning. Li et al. [64] adopt the pre-defined template to convert each triple into a short sentence, which can be understood by LLMs for reasoning. Mindmap [65] designs a KG prompt to convert graph structure into a mind map that enables LLMs to perform reasoning by consolidating the facts in KGs and the implicit knowledge from LLMs. ChatRule [116] samples several relation paths from KGs, which are verbalized and fed into LLMs. Then, LLMs are prompted to generate meaningful logical rules that can be used for reasoning. CoK [117] proposes a chain-of-knowledge prompting that uses a sequence of triples to elicit the reasoning ability of LLMs to reach the final answer. KGs prompting presents a simple way to synergize LLMs and KGs. By using the prompt, we can easily harness the power of LLMs to perform reasoning based on KGs without retraining the models. However, the prompt is usually designed manually, which requires lots of human effort. 4.3 Comparison between KG-enhanced LLM Pre-training and Inference KG-enhanced LLM Pre-training methods commonly enrich large-amount of unlabeled corpus with semantically relevant real-world knowledge. These methods allow the knowledge representations to be aligned with appropriate linguistic context and explicitly train LLMs to leverage those knowledge from scratch. When applying the resulting LLMs to downstream knowledge-intensive tasks, they should achieve optimal performance. In contrast, KG-enhanced LLM inference methods only present the knowledge to LLMs in the inference stage and the underlying LLMs may not be trained to fully leverage these knowledge when conducting downstream tasks, potentially resulting in sub-optimal model performance. However, real-world knowledge is dynamic and requires frequent updates. Despite being effective, the KG-enhanced LLM Pre-training methods never permit knowledge updates or editing without model re-training. As a result, the KG-enhanced LLM Pre-training methods could generalize poorly to recent or unseen knowledge. KG-enhanced LLM inference methods can easily maintain knowledge updates by changing the inference inputs. These methods help improve LLMs performance on new knowledge and domains. In summary, when to use these methods depends on the application scenarios. If one wishes to apply LLMs to handle time-insensitive knowledge in particular domains (e.g., commonsense and reasoning knowledge), KG-enhanced LLM Pre-training methods should be considered. Otherwise, KG-enhanced LLM inference methods can be used to handle open-domain knowledge with frequent updates. <details> <summary>extracted/5367551/figs/LLM_probing.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph Validation Process ### Overview The image illustrates a process for validating information using knowledge graphs (KGs) and Large Language Models (LLMs). It shows how facts are extracted from a KG, used to generate questions, and then validated by an LLM. ### Components/Axes * **KGs (Knowledge Graphs)**: Located in the top-left, enclosed in a dashed blue line. Contains nodes representing entities and relationships. * Nodes: President, Hawaii, Obama, 1776, USA * Edges: * Obama -> President (labeled "Profession") * Obama -> Hawaii (labeled "BronIn") * Obama -> USA (labeled "Country") * 1776 -> USA (labeled "FoundIn") * **Fact**: Located in the top-right, represents a structured piece of information extracted from the KG: "(Obama, Profession, President)". * **Question Generator**: A rounded rectangle on the right, receiving the "Fact" as input. * **LLMs (Large Language Models)**: A yellow rounded rectangle at the bottom-right, receiving a question generated from the "Fact": "Obama's profession is [MASK]." * **Answer**: A rounded rectangle at the bottom-left, providing the validated answer: "President". * **Arrows**: Indicate the flow of information and processes. * Fact -> Question Generator * Question Generator -> LLMs * LLMs -> Answer * KGs -> Answer (labeled "Validation") ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details 1. **Knowledge Graph (KGs)**: * The KG contains information about Obama, including his profession (President), his birthplace (Hawaii), and his association with the USA. It also includes the founding year of the USA (1776). 2. **Fact Extraction**: * The fact "(Obama, Profession, President)" is extracted from the KG. 3. **Question Generation**: * The "Question Generator" uses the extracted fact to create a question. 4. **LLM Prediction**: * The LLM receives the question "Obama's profession is [MASK]." and predicts the missing word. 5. **Validation**: * The LLM's prediction is compared to the information in the KG to validate the answer. 6. **Answer**: * The validated answer "President" is provided. ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a closed-loop system where knowledge from a KG is used to train and validate an LLM. * The use of "[MASK]" indicates a fill-in-the-blank question format. * The "Validation" arrow suggests that the KG is used as a ground truth for evaluating the LLM's performance. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates a method for leveraging knowledge graphs to improve the accuracy and reliability of large language models. By extracting structured facts from a KG, generating targeted questions, and validating the LLM's predictions against the KG, the system can ensure that the LLM's responses are consistent with established knowledge. This approach is particularly useful for tasks such as question answering, information retrieval, and knowledge base completion. The system uses the KG as a source of truth to validate the LLM's predictions, ensuring that the LLM's responses are accurate and reliable. </details> Figure 12: The general framework of using knowledge graph for language model probing. 4.4 KG-enhanced LLM Interpretability Although LLMs have achieved remarkable success in many NLP tasks, they are still criticized for their lack of interpretability. The large language model (LLM) interpretability refers to the understanding and explanation of the inner workings and decision-making processes of a large language model [17]. This can improve the trustworthiness of LLMs and facilitate their applications in high-stakes scenarios such as medical diagnosis and legal judgment. Knowledge graphs (KGs) represent the knowledge structurally and can provide good interpretability for the reasoning results. Therefore, researchers try to utilize KGs to improve the interpretability of LLMs, which can be roughly grouped into two categories: 1) KGs for language model probing, and 2) KGs for language model analysis. 4.4.1 KGs for LLM Probing The large language model (LLM) probing aims to understand the knowledge stored in LLMs. LLMs, trained on large-scale corpus, are often known as containing enormous knowledge. However, LLMs store the knowledge in a hidden way, making it hard to figure out the stored knowledge. Moreover, LLMs suffer from the hallucination problem [15], which results in generating statements that contradict facts. This issue significantly affects the reliability of LLMs. Therefore, it is necessary to probe and verify the knowledge stored in LLMs. LAMA [14] is the first work to probe the knowledge in LLMs by using KGs. As shown in Fig. 12, LAMA first converts the facts in KGs into cloze statements by a pre-defined prompt template and then uses LLMs to predict the missing entity. The prediction results are used to evaluate the knowledge stored in LLMs. For example, we try to probe whether LLMs know the fact (Obama, profession, president). We first convert the fact triple into a cloze question “Obama’s profession is $\_$ .” with the object masked. Then, we test if the LLMs can predict the object “president” correctly. However, LAMA ignores the fact that the prompts are inappropriate. For example, the prompt “Obama worked as a _” may be more favorable to the prediction of the blank by the language models than “Obama is a _ by profession”. Thus, LPAQA [118] proposes a mining and paraphrasing-based method to automatically generate high-quality and diverse prompts for a more accurate assessment of the knowledge contained in the language model. Moreover, Adolphs et al. [128] attempt to use examples to make the language model understand the query, and experiments obtain substantial improvements for BERT-large on the T-REx data. Unlike using manually defined prompt templates, Autoprompt [119] proposes an automated method, which is based on the gradient-guided search to create prompts. LLM-facteval [121] designs a systematic framework that automatically generates probing questions from KGs. The generated questions are then used to evaluate the factual knowledge stored in LLMs. Instead of probing the general knowledge by using the encyclopedic and commonsense knowledge graphs, BioLAMA [129] and MedLAMA [120] probe the medical knowledge in LLMs by using medical knowledge graphs. Alex et al. [130] investigate the capacity of LLMs to retain less popular factual knowledge. They select unpopular facts from Wikidata knowledge graphs which have low-frequency clicked entities. These facts are then used for the evaluation, where the results indicate that LLMs encounter difficulties with such knowledge, and that scaling fails to appreciably improve memorization of factual knowledge in the tail. <details> <summary>extracted/5367551/figs/LLM_analysis.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph Reasoning ### Overview The image illustrates how a Knowledge Graph (KG) and Large Language Models (LLMs) can be used to answer the question: "Which country is Joe Biden from?". The diagram shows a KG containing entities and relations, the LLMs, and the reasoning path used to arrive at the answer "USA". ### Components/Axes * **KGs (Knowledge Graphs):** Located in the top-left, enclosed in a dashed blue border. Contains nodes representing entities (e.g., Obama, USA, Joe Biden, Hawaii, 1776, President) and edges representing relations between them (e.g., Profession, bron_in, Colleagues, FoundIn, Country). * **LLMs (Large Language Models):** Located on the right side, represented by a yellow rounded rectangle. * **Answer:** Located in the top-right, enclosed in a white rounded rectangle, displaying the answer "USA". * **Reasoning Path:** Indicated by white arrows showing the flow of information from the question, through the KG and LLMs, to the answer. * **Question:** Located at the bottom, enclosed in a dashed blue border: "Q: Which country is Joe Biden from?". ### Detailed Analysis * **Knowledge Graph (KG) Details:** * **Nodes:** * Obama: Connected to "President" via "Profession" and to "USA" via "Country". * USA: Connected to "Obama" via "Country" and to "1776" via "FoundIn". * Joe Biden: Connected to "Hawaii" via "bron_in" and part of a "Colleagues" relationship with "Obama". * Hawaii: Connected to "Joe Biden" via "bron_in". * 1776: Connected to "USA" via "FoundIn". * President: Connected to "Obama" via "Profession". * **Edges:** * "Profession" connects "Obama" to "President". * "Country" connects "Obama" to "USA". * "bron_in" connects "Joe Biden" to "Hawaii". * "Colleagues" connects "Joe Biden" to "Obama". This relationship is highlighted with a light red area. * "FoundIn" connects "1776" to "USA". * **Reasoning Path:** 1. The question "Which country is Joe Biden from?" is fed into the LLMs. 2. The LLMs utilize the KG to find the answer. 3. The KG provides information about Joe Biden's relationships (e.g., colleagues with Obama, born in Hawaii) and the relationship between Obama and the USA. 4. The LLMs infer that since Joe Biden is colleagues with Obama, and Obama is associated with the USA, Joe Biden is also from the USA. * **Answer:** The LLMs output "USA" as the answer. ### Key Observations * The diagram highlights the use of KGs to provide structured knowledge to LLMs. * The "Colleagues" relationship between Joe Biden and Obama, along with Obama's association with the USA, is crucial for the LLMs to infer the correct answer. * The diagram simplifies the reasoning process for illustrative purposes. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how KGs can enhance the reasoning capabilities of LLMs. By providing structured information about entities and their relationships, KGs enable LLMs to make inferences and answer questions more accurately. In this specific example, the KG helps the LLMs determine that Joe Biden is from the USA by leveraging the connections between Joe Biden, Obama, and the USA. The "Colleagues" relationship acts as a bridge, allowing the LLMs to infer the connection between Joe Biden and the USA. This highlights the importance of comprehensive and well-structured knowledge in improving the performance of LLMs in question-answering tasks. </details> Figure 13: The general framework of using knowledge graph for language model analysis. 4.4.2 KGs for LLM Analysis Knowledge graphs (KGs) for pre-train language models (LLMs) analysis aims to answer the following questions such as “how do LLMs generate the results?”, and “how do the function and structure work in LLMs?”. To analyze the inference process of LLMs, as shown in Fig. 13, KagNet [38] and QA-GNN [131] make the results generated by LLMs at each reasoning step grounded by knowledge graphs. In this way, the reasoning process of LLMs can be explained by extracting the graph structure from KGs. Shaobo et al. [123] investigate how LLMs generate the results correctly. They adopt the causal-inspired analysis from facts extracted from KGs. This analysis quantitatively measures the word patterns that LLMs depend on to generate the results. The results show that LLMs generate the missing factual more by the positionally closed words rather than the knowledge-dependent words. Thus, they claim that LLMs are inadequate to memorize factual knowledge because of the inaccurate dependence. To interpret the training of LLMs, Swamy et al. [122] adopt the language model during pre-training to generate knowledge graphs. The knowledge acquired by LLMs during training can be unveiled by the facts in KGs explicitly. To explore how implicit knowledge is stored in parameters of LLMs, Dai et al. [39] propose the concept of knowledge neurons. Specifically, activation of the identified knowledge neurons is highly correlated with knowledge expression. Thus, they explore the knowledge and facts represented by each neuron by suppressing and amplifying knowledge neurons. 5 LLM-augmented KGs Knowledge graphs are famous for representing knowledge in a structural manner. They have been applied in many downstream tasks such as question answering, recommendation, and web search. However, the conventional KGs are often incomplete and existing methods often lack considering textual information. To address these issues, recent research has explored integrating LLMs to augment KGs to consider the textual information and improve the performance in downstream tasks. In this section, we will introduce the recent research on LLM-augmented KGs. We will introduce the methods that integrate LLMs for KG embedding, KG completion, KG construction, KG-to-text generation, and KG question answering, respectively. Representative works are summarized in Table III. TABLE III: Summary of representative LLM-augmented KG methods. [b] Task Method Year LLM Technique LLM-augmented KG embedding Pretrain-KGE [94] 2020 E LLMs as Text Encoders KEPLER [40] 2020 E LLMs as Text Encoders Nayyeri et al. [132] 2022 E LLMs as Text Encoders Huang et al. [133] 2022 E LLMs as Text Encoders CoDEx [134] 2022 E LLMs as Text Encoders LMKE [135] 2022 E LLMs for Joint Text and KG Embedding kNN-KGE [136] 2022 E LLMs for Joint Text and KG Embedding LambdaKG [137] 2023 E + D + ED LLMs for Joint Text and KG Embedding LLM-augmented KG completion KG-BERT [26] 2019 E Joint Encoding MTL-KGC [138] 2020 E Joint Encoding PKGC [139] 2022 E Joint Encoding LASS [140] 2022 E Joint Encoding MEM-KGC [141] 2021 E MLM Encoding OpenWorld KGC [142] 2023 E MLM Encoding StAR [143] 2021 E Separated Encoding SimKGC [144] 2022 E Separated Encoding LP-BERT [145] 2022 E Separated Encoding GenKGC [96] 2022 ED LLM as decoders KGT5 [146] 2022 ED LLM as decoders KG-S2S [147] 2022 ED LLM as decoders AutoKG [93] 2023 D LLM as decoders LLM-augmented KG construction ELMO [148] 2018 E Named Entity Recognition GenerativeNER [149] 2021 ED Named Entity Recognition LDET [150] 2019 E Entity Typing BOX4Types [151] 2021 E Entity Typing ELQ [152] 2020 E Entity Linking ReFinED [153] 2022 E Entity Linking BertCR [154] 2019 E CR (Within-document) Spanbert [155] 2020 E CR (Within-document) CDLM [156] 2021 E CR (Cross-document) CrossCR [157] 2021 E CR (Cross-document) CR-RL [158] 2021 E CR (Cross-document) SentRE [159] 2019 E RE (Sentence-level) Curriculum-RE [160] 2021 E RE (Sentence-level) DREEAM [161] 2023 E RE (Document-level) Kumar et al. [95] 2020 E End-to-End Construction Guo et al. [162] 2021 E End-to-End Construction Grapher [41] 2021 ED End-to-End Construction PiVE [163] 2023 D + ED End-to-End Construction COMET [164] 2019 D Distilling KGs from LLMs BertNet [165] 2022 E Distilling KGs from LLMs West et al. [166] 2022 D Distilling KGs from LLMs LLM-augmented KG-to-text Generation Ribeiro et al [167] 2021 ED Leveraging Knowledge from LLMs JointGT [42] 2021 ED Leveraging Knowledge from LLMs FSKG2Text [168] 2021 D + ED Leveraging Knowledge from LLMs GAP [169] 2022 ED Leveraging Knowledge from LLMs GenWiki [170] 2020 - Constructing KG-text aligned Corpus KGPT [171] 2020 ED Constructing KG-text aligned Corpus LLM-augmented KGQA Lukovnikov et al. [172] 2019 E Entity/Relation Extractor Luo et al. [173] 2020 E Entity/Relation Extractor QA-GNN [131] 2021 E Entity/Relation Extractor Nan et al. [174] 2023 E + D + ED Entity/Relation Extractor DEKCOR [175] 2021 E Answer Reasoner DRLK [176] 2022 E Answer Reasoner OreoLM [177] 2022 E Answer Reasoner GreaseLM [178] 2022 E Answer Reasoner ReLMKG [179] 2022 E Answer Reasoner UniKGQA [43] 2023 E Answer Reasoner - E: Encoder-only LLMs, D: Decoder-only LLMs, ED: Encoder-decoder LLMs. 5.1 LLM-augmented KG Embedding Knowledge graph embedding (KGE) aims to map each entity and relation into a low-dimensional vector (embedding) space. These embeddings contain both semantic and structural information of KGs, which can be utilized for various tasks such as question answering [180], reasoning [38], and recommendation [181]. Conventional knowledge graph embedding methods mainly rely on the structural information of KGs to optimize a scoring function defined on embeddings (e.g., TransE [33], and DisMult [182]). However, these approaches often fall short in representing unseen entities and long-tailed relations due to their limited structural connectivity [183, 184]. To address this issue, as shown in Fig. 14, recent research adopts LLMs to enrich representations of KGs by encoding the textual descriptions of entities and relations [94, 40]. <details> <summary>x11.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: KGE Training Process ### Overview The image is a diagram illustrating the Knowledge Graph Embedding (KGE) training process using Large Language Models (LLMs). It shows how information from Knowledge Graphs (KGs) is used to train KGE models, with LLMs acting as an intermediary to generate text descriptions. ### Components/Axes * **Title:** KGE Training * **Elements:** * KGs (Knowledge Graphs): Located at the bottom, represented by a light blue rounded rectangle. * h, r, t: Labels indicating head, relation, and tail entities, respectively. Arrows point from KGs to these labels. * (Neil Armstrong, BornIn, Wapakoneta): Example entities and relation in a tuple format. * Text_h, Text_r, Text_t: Labels indicating text descriptions for head, relation, and tail entities, respectively. * "An American astronaut and aeronautical engineer.": Text description for the head entity. * "A small city in Ohio, USA.": Text description for the tail entity. * LLMs: A yellow rounded rectangle representing Large Language Models. * e_h, e_r, e_t: Labels indicating embeddings for head, relation, and tail entities, respectively. * KGE Models: A dark gray rounded rectangle representing Knowledge Graph Embedding Models. * v_h, v_r, v_t: Labels indicating vectors for head, relation, and tail entities, respectively. * KGE Training: A dashed rectangle enclosing the KGE Models and the vectors. ### Detailed Analysis 1. **KGs (Knowledge Graphs):** * Located at the bottom of the diagram. * Connected to 'h', 'r', and 't' which represent the head, relation, and tail entities. * Example tuple: (Neil Armstrong, BornIn, Wapakoneta) 2. **Text Descriptions:** * Text_h: "An American astronaut and aeronautical engineer." * Text_r: Not explicitly provided in the image, but implied to be a textual representation of the "BornIn" relation. * Text_t: "A small city in Ohio, USA." 3. **LLMs (Large Language Models):** * Positioned above the text descriptions. * Connects the text descriptions to the KGE models. 4. **KGE Models:** * Located at the top of the diagram, within the "KGE Training" box. * Receives embeddings (e_h, e_r, e_t) from the LLMs. * Outputs vectors (v_h, v_r, v_t). 5. **Flow:** * KGs -> (h, r, t) -> (Entities and Relation) * (Entities and Relation) -> (Text Descriptions) * (Text Descriptions) -> LLMs * LLMs -> (e_h, e_r, e_t) * (e_h, e_r, e_t) -> KGE Models * KGE Models -> (v_h, v_r, v_t) ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a process where knowledge from KGs is converted into text by LLMs, which is then used to train KGE models. * The flow starts from structured data in KGs, transforms it into natural language, and then back into embeddings for KGE training. ### Interpretation The diagram depicts a method for leveraging LLMs to enhance KGE training. By using LLMs to generate text descriptions of entities and relations, the system can potentially capture more nuanced and contextual information from the KGs. This approach could improve the quality of the embeddings learned by the KGE models, leading to better performance in downstream tasks such as knowledge graph completion or relation prediction. The use of LLMs bridges the gap between structured knowledge and natural language understanding, potentially enriching the training data for KGE models. </details> Figure 14: LLMs as text encoder for knowledge graph embedding (KGE). 5.1.1 LLMs as Text Encoders Pretrain-KGE [94] is a representative method that follows the framework shown in Fig. 14. Given a triple $(h,r,t)$ from KGs, it firsts uses a LLM encoder to encode the textual descriptions of entities $h$ , $t$ , and relations $r$ into representations as $$ \displaystyle e_{h}=\text{LLM}(\text{Text}_{h}),e_{t}=\text{LLM}(\text{Text}_{% t}),e_{r}=\text{LLM}(\text{Text}_{r}), \tag{1} $$ where $e_{h},e_{r},$ and $e_{t}$ denotes the initial embeddings of entities $h$ , $t$ , and relations $r$ , respectively. Pretrain-KGE uses the BERT as the LLM encoder in experiments. Then, the initial embeddings are fed into a KGE model to generate the final embeddings $v_{h},v_{r}$ , and $v_{t}$ . During the KGE training phase, they optimize the KGE model by following the standard KGE loss function as $$ \mathcal{L}=[\gamma+f(v_{h},v_{r},v_{t})-f(v^{\prime}_{h},v^{\prime}_{r},v^{% \prime}_{t})], \tag{2} $$ where $f$ is the KGE scoring function, $\gamma$ is a margin hyperparameter, and $v^{\prime}_{h},v^{\prime}_{r}$ , and $v^{\prime}_{t}$ are the negative samples. In this way, the KGE model could learn adequate structure information, while reserving partial knowledge from LLM enabling better knowledge graph embedding. KEPLER [40] offers a unified model for knowledge embedding and pre-trained language representation. This model not only generates effective text-enhanced knowledge embedding using powerful LLMs but also seamlessly integrates factual knowledge into LLMs. Nayyeri et al. [132] use LLMs to generate the world-level, sentence-level, and document-level representations. They are integrated with graph structure embeddings into a unified vector by Dihedron and Quaternion representations of 4D hypercomplex numbers. Huang et al. [133] combine LLMs with other vision and graph encoders to learn multi-modal knowledge graph embedding that enhances the performance of downstream tasks. CoDEx [134] presents a novel loss function empowered by LLMs that guides the KGE models in measuring the likelihood of triples by considering the textual information. The proposed loss function is agnostic to model structure that can be incorporated with any KGE model. 5.1.2 LLMs for Joint Text and KG Embedding Instead of using KGE model to consider graph structure, another line of methods directly employs LLMs to incorporate both the graph structure and textual information into the embedding space simultaneously. As shown in Fig. 15, $k$ NN-KGE [136] treats the entities and relations as special tokens in the LLM. During training, it transfers each triple $(h,r,t)$ and corresponding text descriptions into a sentence $x$ as $$ x=\texttt{[CLS]}\ h\ \ \text{Text}_{h}\texttt{[SEP]}\ r\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ % \texttt{[MASK]}\ \ \text{Text}_{t}\texttt{[SEP]}, \tag{3} $$ where the tailed entities are replaced by [MASK]. The sentence is fed into a LLM, which then finetunes the model to predict the masked entity, formulated as $$ P_{LLM}(t|h,r)=P(\texttt{[MASK]=t}|x,\Theta), \tag{4} $$ where $\Theta$ denotes the parameters of the LLM. The LLM is optimized to maximize the probability of the correct entity $t$ . After training, the corresponding token representations in LLMs are used as embeddings for entities and relations. Similarly, LMKE [135] proposes a contrastive learning method to improve the learning of embeddings generated by LLMs for KGE. Meanwhile, to better capture graph structure, LambdaKG [137] samples 1-hop neighbor entities and concatenates their tokens with the triple as a sentence feeding into LLMs. <details> <summary>x12.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Mask Entity Prediction ### Overview The image is a diagram illustrating a "Mask Entity Prediction" process using Large Language Models (LLMs) and Knowledge Graphs (KGs). It shows how LLMs are used to predict a masked entity based on input text and knowledge from KGs. ### Components/Axes * **Title:** Mask Entity Prediction * **Top Box:** "Wapakoneta" (light blue box with rounded corners) * **Central Box:** "LLMs" (large yellow box with rounded corners) * **Bottom Box:** "KGs" (light blue box with rounded corners) * **Input Boxes (from left to right):** * "[CLS]" (white box with black border and rounded corners) * "Neil Armstrong" (light blue box with rounded corners) * "Textₕ" (light orange box with rounded corners) * "[SEP]" (white box with black border and rounded corners) * "BornIn" (light blue box with rounded corners) * "[MASK]" (white box with black border and rounded corners) * "Textₜ" (light orange box with rounded corners) * "[SEP]" (white box with black border and rounded corners) * **Labels below input boxes:** * "(Neil Armstrong, BornIn, Wapakoneta)" * "h" (below "Neil Armstrong") * "r" (below "BornIn") * "t" (below "[MASK]") * **Arrows:** Arrows indicate the flow of information. Arrows point upwards from the input boxes to the "LLMs" box, from the "KGs" box to "r", and from the "LLMs" box to "Wapakoneta". ### Detailed Analysis or Content Details The diagram depicts a process where LLMs are used to predict a masked entity. The input consists of: 1. A classification token "[CLS]". 2. The entity "Neil Armstrong" (labeled as 'h'). 3. Text context "Textₕ". 4. A separator token "[SEP]". 5. The relation "BornIn" (labeled as 'r'). 6. A mask token "[MASK]". 7. Text context "Textₜ". 8. A separator token "[SEP]". The LLMs use this input, along with information from Knowledge Graphs (KGs), to predict the masked entity, which in this case is "Wapakoneta" (labeled as 't'). The tuple (Neil Armstrong, BornIn, Wapakoneta) is shown below the input boxes, indicating the relationship being predicted. ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a knowledge graph completion task where the LLM predicts the missing entity in a triple. * The input sequence includes special tokens like "[CLS]", "[SEP]", and "[MASK]" which are common in transformer-based models. * The colors of the boxes seem to indicate different types of information: light blue for entities, light orange for text, and white for special tokens. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how LLMs can be used for knowledge graph completion tasks. By providing the LLM with context, a relation, and a masked entity, the model can predict the missing entity based on its learned knowledge and the information provided by the KGs. This process is useful for expanding and completing knowledge graphs, as well as for tasks such as question answering and information retrieval. The use of special tokens helps the LLM understand the structure of the input and focus on the relevant information for prediction. </details> Figure 15: LLMs for joint text and knowledge graph embedding. 5.2 LLM-augmented KG Completion Knowledge Graph Completion (KGC) refers to the task of inferring missing facts in a given knowledge graph. Similar to KGE, conventional KGC methods mainly focused on the structure of the KG, without considering the extensive textual information. However, the recent integration of LLMs enables KGC methods to encode text or generate facts for better KGC performance. These methods fall into two distinct categories based on their utilization styles: 1) LLM as Encoders (PaE), and 2) LLM as Generators (PaG). 5.2.1 LLM as Encoders (PaE). As shown in Fig. 16 (a), (b), and (c), this line of work first uses encoder-only LLMs to encode textual information as well as KG facts. Then, they predict the plausibility of the triples or masked entities by feeding the encoded representation into a prediction head, which could be a simple MLP or conventional KG score function (e.g., TransE [33] and TransR [185]). Joint Encoding. Since the encoder-only LLMs (e.g., Bert [1]) are well at encoding text sequences, KG-BERT [26] represents a triple $(h,r,t)$ as a text sequence and encodes it with LLM Fig. 16 (a). $$ x=\texttt{[CLS]}\ \text{Text}_{h}\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ \text{Text}_{r}\ \texttt{[% SEP]}\ \text{Text}_{t}\ \texttt{[SEP]}, \tag{5} $$ The final hidden state of the [CLS] token is fed into a classifier to predict the possibility of the triple, formulated as $$ s=\sigma(\text{MLP}(e_{\texttt{[CLS]}})), \tag{6} $$ where $\sigma(·)$ denotes the sigmoid function and $e_{\texttt{[CLS]}}$ denotes the representation encoded by LLMs. To improve the efficacy of KG-BERT, MTL-KGC [138] proposed a Multi-Task Learning for the KGC framework which incorporates additional auxiliary tasks into the model’s training, i.e. prediction (RP) and relevance ranking (RR). PKGC [139] assesses the validity of a triplet $(h,r,t)$ by transforming the triple and its supporting information into natural language sentences with pre-defined templates. These sentences are then processed by LLMs for binary classification. The supporting information of the triplet is derived from the attributes of $h$ and $t$ with a verbalizing function. For instance, if the triple is (Lebron James, member of sports team, Lakers), the information regarding Lebron James is verbalized as ”Lebron James: American basketball player”. LASS [140] observes that language semantics and graph structures are equally vital to KGC. As a result, LASS is proposed to jointly learn two types of embeddings: semantic embedding and structure embedding. In this method, the full text of a triple is forwarded to the LLM, and the mean pooling of the corresponding LLM outputs for $h$ , $r$ , and $t$ are separately calculated. These embeddings are then passed to a graph-based method, i.e. TransE, to reconstruct the KG structures. <details> <summary>x13.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Triple Encoding Methods ### Overview The image illustrates three different encoding methods for triples (h, r, t), likely representing head, relation, and tail entities in a knowledge graph. The methods are: Joint Encoding, MLM (Masked Language Model) Encoding, and Separated Encoding. Each method uses Large Language Models (LLMs) to process the input sequence and generate an output. ### Components/Axes * **Triple:** (h, r, t) - Represents the head, relation, and tail entities. * **Text Sequence:** [CLS] Texth [SEP] Textr [SEP] Textt [SEP] - The input sequence format for the LLMs. * [CLS]: Classification token. * Texth: Text representing the head entity. * [SEP]: Separator token. * Textr: Text representing the relation. * Textt: Text representing the tail entity. * [MASK]: Masked token. * **LLMs:** Large Language Models - The core processing units. Represented as yellow rounded rectangles. * **MLP:** Multi-Layer Perceptron - Used for further processing of the LLM output. Represented as gray rectangles. * **0/1:** Output of the MLP in Joint Encoding, likely representing a binary classification score. Represented as a gray rounded rectangle. * **Entity:** Output of the MLP in MLM Encoding, likely representing the predicted entity. Represented as a light blue rounded rectangle. * **Score Function:** Used in Separated Encoding to combine the outputs of the two LLMs. Represented as a gray rectangle. * **Score:** Output of the Score Function in Separated Encoding. Represented as a gray rounded rectangle. ### Detailed Analysis **(a) Joint Encoding:** * **Input Sequence:** `[CLS] Texth [SEP] Textr [SEP] Textt [SEP]` * The entire sequence is fed into a single LLM. * The output of the LLM is processed by an MLP. * The MLP outputs a binary classification score (0/1). **(b) MLM Encoding:** * **Input Sequence:** `[CLS] Texth [SEP] Textr [SEP] [MASK] [SEP]` * The tail entity (Textt) is replaced with a `[MASK]` token. * The sequence is fed into a single LLM. * The output of the LLM is processed by an MLP. * The MLP outputs a predicted entity. **(c) Separated Encoding:** * The head and relation (`[CLS] Texth [SEP] Textr [SEP]`) and the tail (`[CLS] Textt [SEP]`) are fed into two separate LLMs. * The outputs of the two LLMs are combined using a Score Function. * The Score Function outputs a score. ### Key Observations * The three encoding methods differ in how they process the triple information. * Joint Encoding processes the entire triple at once. * MLM Encoding uses a masked language model approach to predict the tail entity. * Separated Encoding processes the head/relation and tail separately. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates three different approaches to encoding triples for knowledge graph tasks. The choice of encoding method can impact the performance of the model. Joint Encoding might be suitable for tasks that require reasoning over the entire triple. MLM Encoding might be suitable for tasks such as link prediction. Separated Encoding might be suitable for tasks where the head/relation and tail can be processed independently. The use of LLMs in all three methods highlights the importance of pre-trained language models in knowledge graph research. </details> Figure 16: The general framework of adopting LLMs as encoders (PaE) for KG Completion. MLM Encoding. Instead of encoding the full text of a triple, many works introduce the concept of Masked Language Model (MLM) to encode KG text (Fig. 16 (b)). MEM-KGC [141] uses Masked Entity Model (MEM) classification mechanism to predict the masked entities of the triple. The input text is in the form of $$ x=\texttt{[CLS]}\ \text{Text}_{h}\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ \text{Text}_{r}\ \texttt{[% SEP]}\ \texttt{[MASK]}\ \texttt{[SEP]}, \tag{7} $$ Similar to Eq. 4, it tries to maximize the probability that the masked entity is the correct entity $t$ . Additionally, to enable the model to learn unseen entities, MEM-KGC integrates multitask learning for entities and super-class prediction based on the text description of entities: $$ x=\texttt{[CLS]}\ \texttt{[MASK]}\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ \text{Text}_{h}\ \texttt{[% SEP]}. \tag{8} $$ OpenWorld KGC [142] expands the MEM-KGC model to address the challenges of open-world KGC with a pipeline framework, where two sequential MLM-based modules are defined: Entity Description Prediction (EDP), an auxiliary module that predicts a corresponding entity with a given textual description; Incomplete Triple Prediction (ITP), the target module that predicts a plausible entity for a given incomplete triple $(h,r,?)$ . EDP first encodes the triple with Eq. 8 and generates the final hidden state, which is then forwarded into ITP as an embedding of the head entity in Eq. 7 to predict target entities. Separated Encoding. As shown in Fig. 16 (c), these methods involve partitioning a triple $(h,r,t)$ into two distinct parts, i.e. $(h,r)$ and $t$ , which can be expressed as $$ \displaystyle x_{(h,r)} \displaystyle=\texttt{[CLS]}\ \text{Text}_{h}\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ \text{Text}_{r}% \ \texttt{[SEP]}, \displaystyle x_{t} \displaystyle=\texttt{[CLS]}\ \text{Text}_{t}\ \texttt{[SEP]}. \tag{9} $$ Then the two parts are encoded separately by LLMs, and the final hidden states of the [CLS] tokens are used as the representations of $(h,r)$ and $t$ , respectively. The representations are then fed into a scoring function to predict the possibility of the triple, formulated as $$ s=f_{score}(e_{(h,r)},e_{t}), \tag{11} $$ where $f_{score}$ denotes the score function like TransE. StAR [143] applies Siamese-style textual encoders on their text, encoding them into separate contextualized representations. To avoid the combinatorial explosion of textual encoding approaches, e.g., KG-BERT, StAR employs a scoring module that involves both deterministic classifier and spatial measurement for representation and structure learning respectively, which also enhances structured knowledge by exploring the spatial characteristics. SimKGC [144] is another instance of leveraging a Siamese textual encoder to encode textual representations. Following the encoding process, SimKGC applies contrastive learning techniques to these representations. This process involves computing the similarity between the encoded representations of a given triple and its positive and negative samples. In particular, the similarity between the encoded representation of the triple and the positive sample is maximized, while the similarity between the encoded representation of the triple and the negative sample is minimized. This enables SimKGC to learn a representation space that separates plausible and implausible triples. To avoid overfitting textural information, CSPromp-KG [186] employs parameter-efficient prompt learning for KGC. LP-BERT [145] is a hybrid KGC method that combines both MLM Encoding and Separated Encoding. This approach consists of two stages, namely pre-training and fine-tuning. During pre-training, the method utilizes the standard MLM mechanism to pre-train a LLM with KGC data. During the fine-tuning stage, the LLM encodes both parts and is optimized using a contrastive learning strategy (similar to SimKGC [144]). 5.2.2 LLM as Generators (PaG). <details> <summary>x14.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Encoder-Decoder and Decoder-Only PaG Architectures ### Overview The image presents two distinct architectures for Prompt Augmented Generation (PaG) using Large Language Models (LLMs). The first architecture is an Encoder-Decoder PaG, and the second is a Decoder-Only PaG. Both diagrams illustrate how a query triple (h, r, ?) is processed to generate text. ### Components/Axes * **Top:** * `Query Triple: (h, r, ?)`: Represents the input query consisting of a head entity (h), a relation (r), and a missing tail entity (?). * Downward arrow indicating the flow of the query into the subsequent text sequence. * `Text Sequence: [CLS] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]`: Represents the input text sequence. `[CLS]` denotes the classification token, `Text_h` the text of the head entity, `[SEP]` the separator token, and `Text_r` the text of the relation. * Dashed horizontal line separating the input sequence from the PaG architectures. * **Encoder-Decoder PaG (Top Diagram):** * `LLMs (En.)`: Represents the Encoder LLM. * `LLMs (De.)`: Represents the Decoder LLM. * `[SEP] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]`: Input to the Encoder LLM. * `[SEP] Text_t [SEP]`: Input to the Decoder LLM, where `Text_t` is the generated text for the tail entity. * Arrow from `LLMs (En.)` to `LLMs (De.)` indicating the flow of information from the encoder to the decoder. * Upward arrow from `[SEP] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]` to `LLMs (En.)`. * Upward arrow from `[SEP] Text_t [SEP]` to `LLMs (De.)`. * `(a) Encoder-Decoder PaG`: Label indicating the type of architecture. * **Decoder-Only PaG (Bottom Diagram):** * `LLMs (De.)`: Represents the Decoder LLM. * `[SEP] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]`: Input to the Decoder LLM. * `[SEP] Text_t [SEP]`: Output from the Decoder LLM, where `Text_t` is the generated text for the tail entity. * Upward arrow from `[SEP] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]` to `LLMs (De.)`. * Upward arrow from `[SEP] Text_t [SEP]` to `LLMs (De.)`. * `(a) Decoder-Only PaG`: Label indicating the type of architecture. ### Detailed Analysis or Content Details * **Query Triple:** The process starts with a query triple `(h, r, ?)`, where `h` is the head entity, `r` is the relation, and `?` indicates the missing tail entity that needs to be predicted. * **Text Sequence:** The query triple is converted into a text sequence `[CLS] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]`. This sequence is then used as input to the PaG architectures. * **Encoder-Decoder PaG:** In this architecture, the text sequence `[SEP] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]` is fed into the Encoder LLM. The Encoder processes this input and passes information to the Decoder LLM. The Decoder then generates the text for the tail entity `Text_t`, which is represented as `[SEP] Text_t [SEP]`. * **Decoder-Only PaG:** In this architecture, the text sequence `[SEP] Text_h [SEP] Text_r [SEP]` is directly fed into the Decoder LLM. The Decoder then generates the text for the tail entity `Text_t`, which is represented as `[SEP] Text_t [SEP]`. ### Key Observations * Both architectures aim to generate the missing tail entity `Text_t` based on the given head entity `Text_h` and relation `Text_r`. * The Encoder-Decoder PaG uses two separate LLMs (Encoder and Decoder), while the Decoder-Only PaG uses only a single Decoder LLM. * The input text sequence is similar for both architectures, but the processing differs based on whether an encoder is used. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates two different approaches to Prompt Augmented Generation (PaG) for knowledge graph completion. The Encoder-Decoder PaG leverages the strengths of both encoder and decoder models, where the encoder can effectively capture the context of the input sequence, and the decoder can generate the missing tail entity. The Decoder-Only PaG simplifies the architecture by using a single decoder model, which can be more efficient but may require more sophisticated prompting techniques to achieve comparable performance. The choice between these architectures depends on the specific requirements of the task, such as the desired accuracy, efficiency, and the available computational resources. </details> Figure 17: The general framework of adopting LLMs as decoders (PaG) for KG Completion. The En. and De. denote the encoder and decoder, respectively. Recent works use LLMs as sequence-to-sequence generators in KGC. As presented in Fig. 17 (a) and (b), these approaches involve encoder-decoder or decoder-only LLMs. The LLMs receive a sequence text input of the query triple $(h,r,?)$ , and generate the text of tail entity $t$ directly. GenKGC [96] uses the large language model BART [5] as the backbone model. Inspired by the in-context learning approach used in GPT-3 [59], where the model concatenates relevant samples to learn correct output answers, GenKGC proposes a relation-guided demonstration technique that includes triples with the same relation to facilitating the model’s learning process. In addition, during generation, an entity-aware hierarchical decoding method is proposed to reduce the time complexity. KGT5 [146] introduces a novel KGC model that fulfils four key requirements of such models: scalability, quality, versatility, and simplicity. To address these objectives, the proposed model employs a straightforward T5 small architecture. The model is distinct from previous KGC methods, in which it is randomly initialized rather than using pre-trained models. KG-S2S [147] is a comprehensive framework that can be applied to various types of KGC tasks, including Static KGC, Temporal KGC, and Few-shot KGC. To achieve this objective, KG-S2S reformulates the standard triple KG fact by introducing an additional element, forming a quadruple $(h,r,t,m)$ , where $m$ represents the additional ”condition” element. Although different KGC tasks may refer to different conditions, they typically have a similar textual format, which enables unification across different KGC tasks. The KG-S2S approach incorporates various techniques such as entity description, soft prompt, and Seq2Seq Dropout to improve the model’s performance. In addition, it utilizes constrained decoding to ensure the generated entities are valid. For closed-source LLMs (e.g., ChatGPT and GPT-4), AutoKG adopts prompt engineering to design customized prompts [93]. As shown in Fig. 18, these prompts contain the task description, few-shot examples, and test input, which instruct LLMs to predict the tail entity for KG completion. <details> <summary>x15.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph Completion using LLMs ### Overview The image illustrates a diagram depicting how Large Language Models (LLMs) can be used for knowledge graph completion. It shows the process of predicting the tail entity given a head entity and relation, using "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" as an example. ### Components/Axes * **Top Box:** "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" (black box) * **Middle Box:** "LLMs" (yellow box) * **Arrows:** Two upward-pointing arrows connecting the boxes. * **Left Side:** ChatGPT logo * **Dashed Border:** A rounded rectangle with a dashed border encloses the lower part of the diagram. * **Red Box:** "Given head entity and relation, predict the tail entity from the candidates: [100 candidates ]" * **Purple Box:** * "Head: Charlie's Angels" * "Relation: genre of" * "Tail: Comedy-GB" * **Orange Box:** * "Head: Charlie's Angels" * "Relation: prequel of" * "Tail:" * **Multiplier:** "x5" to the right of the purple box. ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details 1. **Top Box:** The diagram starts with the movie title "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle". 2. **LLMs Box:** The yellow box labeled "LLMs" represents the Large Language Models used in the process. 3. **Arrows:** The arrows indicate the flow of information. The LLMs are used to predict relationships. 4. **Red Box:** The red box describes the task: given a head entity and a relation, predict the tail entity from a set of 100 candidates. 5. **Purple Box:** This box provides an example where the head entity is "Charlie's Angels", the relation is "genre of", and the predicted tail entity is "Comedy-GB". 6. **Orange Box:** This box provides another example where the head entity is "Charlie's Angels", the relation is "prequel of", and the tail entity is left blank, indicating that the LLM needs to predict it. 7. **Multiplier:** The "x5" indicates that the purple box example is repeated 5 times. ### Key Observations * The diagram demonstrates how LLMs can be used to predict relationships between entities in a knowledge graph. * The example uses "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle" as the head entity. * The task involves predicting the tail entity given the head entity and relation. * The purple box shows a successful prediction, while the orange box shows a case where the LLM needs to predict the tail entity. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a knowledge graph completion task where LLMs are used to predict missing relationships between entities. The example shows how, given a head entity (e.g., "Charlie's Angels") and a relation (e.g., "genre of"), the LLM can predict the tail entity (e.g., "Comedy-GB"). The "x5" suggests that this type of example is repeated multiple times, possibly to train or evaluate the LLM. The orange box highlights a scenario where the LLM needs to infer the missing "Tail" entity, showcasing the model's ability to complete incomplete knowledge graph entries. The ChatGPT logo suggests that the LLM used in this example could be a model developed by OpenAI. </details> Figure 18: The framework of prompt-based PaG for KG Completion. Comparison between PaE and PaG. LLMs as Encoders (PaE) applies an additional prediction head on the top of the representation encoded by LLMs. Therefore, the PaE framework is much easier to finetune since we can only optimize the prediction heads and freeze the LLMs. Moreover, the output of the prediction can be easily specified and integrated with existing KGC functions for different KGC tasks. However, during the inference stage, the PaE requires to compute a score for every candidate in KGs, which could be computationally expensive. Besides, they cannot generalize to unseen entities. Furthermore, the PaE requires the representation output of the LLMs, whereas some state-of-the-art LLMs (e.g. GPT-4 footnotemark: ) are closed sources and do not grant access to the representation output. LLMs as Generators (PaG), on the other hand, which does not need the prediction head, can be used without finetuning or access to representations. Therefore, the framework of PaG is suitable for all kinds of LLMs. In addition, PaG directly generates the tail entity, making it efficient in inference without ranking all the candidates and easily generalizing to unseen entities. But, the challenge of PaG is that the generated entities could be diverse and not lie in KGs. What is more, the time of a single inference is longer due to the auto-regressive generation. Last, how to design a powerful prompt that feeds KGs into LLMs is still an open question. Consequently, while PaG has demonstrated promising results for KGC tasks, the trade-off between model complexity and computational efficiency must be carefully considered when selecting an appropriate LLM-based KGC framework. 5.2.3 Model Analysis Justin et al. [187] provide a comprehensive analysis of KGC methods integrated with LLMs. Their research investigates the quality of LLM embeddings and finds that they are suboptimal for effective entity ranking. In response, they propose several techniques for processing embeddings to improve their suitability for candidate retrieval. The study also compares different model selection dimensions, such as Embedding Extraction, Query Entity Extraction, and Language Model Selection. Lastly, the authors propose a framework that effectively adapts LLM for knowledge graph completion. 5.3 LLM-augmented KG Construction Knowledge graph construction involves creating a structured representation of knowledge within a specific domain. This includes identifying entities and their relationships with each other. The process of knowledge graph construction typically involves multiple stages, including 1) entity discovery, 2) coreference resolution, and 3) relation extraction. Fig 19 presents the general framework of applying LLMs for each stage in KG construction. More recent approaches have explored 4) end-to-end knowledge graph construction, which involves constructing a complete knowledge graph in one step or directly 5) distilling knowledge graphs from LLMs. 5.3.1 Entity Discovery Entity discovery in KG construction refers to the process of identifying and extracting entities from unstructured data sources, such as text documents, web pages, or social media posts, and incorporating them to construct knowledge graphs. Named Entity Recognition (NER) involves identifying and tagging named entities in text data with their positions and classifications. The named entities include people, organizations, locations, and other types of entities. The state-of-the-art NER methods usually employ LLMs to leverage their contextual understanding and linguistic knowledge for accurate entity recognition and classification. There are three NER sub-tasks based on the types of NER spans identified, i.e., flat NER, nested NER, and discontinuous NER. 1) Flat NER is to identify non-overlapping named entities from input text. It is usually conceptualized as a sequence labelling problem where each token in the text is assigned a unique label based on its position in the sequence [148, 1, 188, 189]. 2) Nested NER considers complex scenarios which allow a token to belong to multiple entities. The span-based method [190, 191, 192, 193, 194] is a popular branch of nested NER which involves enumerating all candidate spans and classifying them into entity types (including a non-entity type). Parsing-based methods [195, 196, 197] reveal similarities between nested NER and constituency parsing tasks (predicting nested and non-overlapping spans), and propose to integrate the insights of constituency parsing into nested NER. 3) Discontinuous NER identifies named entities that may not be contiguous in the text. To address this challenge, [198] uses the LLM output to identify entity fragments and determine whether they are overlapped or in succession. Unlike the task-specific methods, GenerativeNER [149] uses a sequence-to-sequence LLM with a pointer mechanism to generate an entity sequence, which is capable of solving all three types of NER sub-tasks. <details> <summary>x16.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Knowledge Graph: Joe Biden Example ### Overview The image illustrates a knowledge graph and its construction using an LLM (Large Language Model). The top portion displays a knowledge graph centered around Joe Biden, showing relationships like "IsA" (is a) and "BornIn." The bottom portion demonstrates how an LLM can be used to construct such a graph from the text: "Joe Biden was born in Pennsylvania. He serves as the 46th President of the United States." ### Components/Axes **Top Portion: Knowledge Graph** * **Nodes:** * Joe Biden (with a photo of Joe Biden) * politician (connected to Joe Biden via "IsA" relationship) * Pennsylvania (with a photo of Pennsylvania) * state (connected to Pennsylvania via "IsA" relationship) * United States (with a US flag) * country (connected to United States via "IsA" relationship) * Two additional nodes are present, but their labels are not visible ("...") * **Edges:** * "IsA": Connects Joe Biden to politician, Pennsylvania to state, United States to country. * "BornIn": Connects Joe Biden to Pennsylvania. * "PresidentOf": Connects Joe Biden to United States. * **Arrow:** An upward-pointing arrow is located below the United States flag. **Bottom Portion: LLM-based Knowledge Graph Construction** * **Text:** "Joe Biden was born in Pennsylvania. He serves as the 46th President of the United States." * **Annotations:** The text is annotated with different colors, each representing a different NLP task: * "Joe Biden," "Pennsylvania," and "United States" are highlighted in light blue, indicating Named Entity Recognition. * "politician," "state," and "country" are highlighted in light orange, indicating Entity Typing. * Images of Joe Biden and Pennsylvania are linked to their respective mentions in the text, indicating Entity Linking. * "He" is highlighted in light purple, indicating Coreference Resolution. * "was born in" and "President of" are highlighted in light red, indicating Relation Extraction. * **Legend:** Located in the bottom-right corner, explaining the color-coding of the annotations: * Light Blue: Named Entity Recognition * Light Orange: Entity Typing * Image: Entity Linking * Light Purple: Coreference Resolution * Light Red: Relation Extraction * **Arrow:** An upward-pointing arrow is located below the text. ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details **Knowledge Graph Details:** * Joe Biden is linked to "politician" via an "IsA" relationship, indicating that Joe Biden is a politician. * Joe Biden is linked to "Pennsylvania" via a "BornIn" relationship, indicating that Joe Biden was born in Pennsylvania. * Joe Biden is linked to "United States" via a "PresidentOf" relationship, indicating that Joe Biden is the President of the United States. * Pennsylvania is linked to "state" via an "IsA" relationship, indicating that Pennsylvania is a state. * United States is linked to "country" via an "IsA" relationship, indicating that the United States is a country. **LLM-based Construction Details:** * The LLM identifies "Joe Biden," "Pennsylvania," and "United States" as named entities. * The LLM identifies "politician," "state," and "country" as entity types. * The LLM links the mentions of "Joe Biden" and "Pennsylvania" to their respective entities. * The LLM resolves the coreference of "He" to "Joe Biden." * The LLM extracts the relations "was born in" and "President of" from the text. ### Key Observations * The knowledge graph represents factual information about Joe Biden. * The LLM-based construction demonstrates how such a graph can be automatically created from text. * The color-coding in the LLM portion clearly shows the different NLP tasks involved in knowledge graph construction. ### Interpretation The image effectively illustrates the concept of a knowledge graph and how it can be constructed using an LLM. The top portion provides a visual representation of the knowledge graph, while the bottom portion demonstrates the process of extracting information from text to build the graph. The use of color-coding and clear labels makes the diagram easy to understand. The diagram highlights the ability of LLMs to automatically extract structured knowledge from unstructured text, which is a crucial step in many AI applications. The relationships extracted (IsA, BornIn, PresidentOf) are fundamental to understanding the entities involved. </details> Figure 19: The general framework of LLM-based KG construction. Entity Typing (ET) aims to provide fine-grained and ultra-grained type information for a given entity mentioned in context. These methods usually utilize LLM to encode mentions, context and types. LDET [150] applies pre-trained ELMo embeddings [148] for word representation and adopts LSTM as its sentence and mention encoders. BOX4Types [151] recognizes the importance of type dependency and uses BERT to represent the hidden vector and each type in a hyperrectangular (box) space. LRN [199] considers extrinsic and intrinsic dependencies between labels. It encodes the context and entity with BERT and employs these output embeddings to conduct deductive and inductive reasoning. MLMET [200] uses predefined patterns to construct input samples for the BERT MLM and employs [MASK] to predict context-dependent hypernyms of the mention, which can be viewed as type labels. PL [201] and DFET [202] utilize prompt learning for entity typing. LITE [203] formulates entity typing as textual inference and uses RoBERTa-large-MNLI as the backbone network. Entity Linking (EL), as known as entity disambiguation, involves linking entity mentions appearing in the text to their corresponding entities in a knowledge graph. [204] proposed BERT-based end-to-end EL systems that jointly discover and link entities. ELQ [152] employs a fast bi-encoder architecture to jointly perform mention detection and linking in one pass for downstream question answering systems. Unlike previous models that frame EL as matching in vector space, GENRE [205] formulates it as a sequence-to-sequence problem, autoregressively generating a version of the input markup-annotated with the unique identifiers of an entity expressed in natural language. GENRE is extended to its multilingual version mGENRE [206]. Considering the efficiency challenges of generative EL approaches, [207] parallelizes autoregressive linking across all potential mentions and relies on a shallow and efficient decoder. ReFinED [153] proposes an efficient zero-shot-capable EL approach by taking advantage of fine-grained entity types and entity descriptions which are processed by a LLM-based encoder. 5.3.2 Coreference Resolution (CR) Coreference resolution is to find all expressions (i.e., mentions) that refer to the same entity or event in a text. Within-document CR refers to the CR sub-task where all these mentions are in a single document. Mandar et al. [154] initialize LLM-based coreferences resolution by replacing the previous LSTM encoder [208] with BERT. This work is followed by the introduction of SpanBERT [155] which is pre-trained on BERT architecture with a span-based masked language model (MLM). Inspired by these works, Tuan Manh et al. [209] present a strong baseline by incorporating the SpanBERT encoder into a non-LLM approach e2e-coref [208]. CorefBERT leverages Mention Reference Prediction (MRP) task which masks one or several mentions and requires the model to predict the masked mention’s corresponding referents. CorefQA [210] formulates coreference resolution as a question answering task, where contextual queries are generated for each candidate mention and the coreferent spans are extracted from the document using the queries. Tuan Manh et al. [211] introduce a gating mechanism and a noisy training method to extract information from event mentions using the SpanBERT encoder. In order to reduce the large memory footprint faced by large LLM-based NER models, Yuval et al. [212] and Raghuveer el al. [213] proposed start-to-end and approximation models, respectively, both utilizing bilinear functions to calculate mention and antecedent scores with reduced reliance on span-level representations. Cross-document CR refers to the sub-task where the mentions refer to the same entity or event might be across multiple documents. CDML [156] proposes a cross document language modeling method which pre-trains a Longformer [214] encoder on concatenated related documents and employs an MLP for binary classification to determine whether a pair of mentions is coreferent or not. CrossCR [157] utilizes an end-to-end model for cross-document coreference resolution which pre-trained the mention scorer on gold mention spans and uses a pairwise scorer to compare mentions with all spans across all documents. CR-RL [158] proposes an actor-critic deep reinforcement learning-based coreference resolver for cross-document CR. 5.3.3 Relation Extraction (RE) Relation extraction involves identifying semantic relationships between entities mentioned in natural language text. There are two types of relation extraction methods, i.e. sentence-level RE and document-level RE, according to the scope of the text analyzed. Sentence-level RE focuses on identifying relations between entities within a single sentence. Peng et al. [159] and TRE [215] introduce LLM to improve the performance of relation extraction models. BERT-MTB [216] learns relation representations based on BERT by performing the matching-the-blanks task and incorporating designed objectives for relation extraction. Curriculum-RE [160] utilizes curriculum learning to improve relation extraction models by gradually increasing the difficulty of the data during training. RECENT [217] introduces SpanBERT and exploits entity type restriction to reduce the noisy candidate relation types. Jiewen [218] extends RECENT by combining both the entity information and the label information into sentence-level embeddings, which enables the embedding to be entity-label aware. Document-level RE (DocRE) aims to extract relations between entities across multiple sentences within a document. Hong et al. [219] propose a strong baseline for DocRE by replacing the BiLSTM backbone with LLMs. HIN [220] use LLM to encode and aggregate entity representation at different levels, including entity, sentence, and document levels. GLRE [221] is a global-to-local network, which uses LLM to encode the document information in terms of entity global and local representations as well as context relation representations. SIRE [222] uses two LLM-based encoders to extract intra-sentence and inter-sentence relations. LSR [223] and GAIN [224] propose graph-based approaches which induce graph structures on top of LLM to better extract relations. DocuNet [225] formulates DocRE as a semantic segmentation task and introduces a U-Net [226] on the LLM encoder to capture local and global dependencies between entities. ATLOP [227] focuses on the multi-label problems in DocRE, which could be handled with two techniques, i.e., adaptive thresholding for classifier and localized context pooling for LLM. DREEAM [161] further extends and improves ATLOP by incorporating evidence information. End-to-End KG Construction. Currently, researchers are exploring the use of LLMs for end-to-end KG construction. Kumar et al. [95] propose a unified approach to build KGs from raw text, which contains two LLMs powered components. They first finetune a LLM on named entity recognition tasks to make it capable of recognizing entities in raw text. Then, they propose another “2-model BERT” for solving the relation extraction task, which contains two BERT-based classifiers. The first classifier learns the relation class whereas the second binary classifier learns the direction of the relations between the two entities. The predicted triples and relations are then used to construct the KG. Guo et al. [162] propose an end-to-end knowledge extraction model based on BERT, which can be applied to construct KGs from Classical Chinese text. Grapher [41] presents a novel end-to-end multi-stage system. It first utilizes LLMs to generate KG entities, followed by a simple relation construction head, enabling efficient KG construction from the textual description. PiVE [163] proposes a prompting with an iterative verification framework that utilizes a smaller LLM like T5 to correct the errors in KGs generated by a larger LLM (e.g., ChatGPT). To further explore advanced LLMs, AutoKG design several prompts for different KG construction tasks (e.g., entity typing, entity linking, and relation extraction). Then, it adopts the prompt to perform KG construction using ChatGPT and GPT-4. <details> <summary>x17.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph Construction from Cloze Questions ### Overview The image illustrates a process for constructing knowledge graphs (KGs) from cloze-style questions using Large Language Models (LLMs). The process starts with cloze questions, uses LLMs to generate distilled triples, and then constructs a knowledge graph from these triples. ### Components/Axes * **Cloze Question:** A rounded rectangle containing example cloze questions. * "Obama born in [MASK]" * "Honolulu is located in [MASK]" * "USA's capital is [MASK]" * "..." * **LLMs:** A yellow rounded rectangle labeled "LLMs". * **Distilled Triples:** A light blue rounded rectangle containing example triples. * "(Obama, BornIn, Honolulu)" * "(Honolulu, LocatedIn, USA)" * "(Washingto D.C., CapitalOf, USA)" * "..." * **Construct KGs:** The title of the knowledge graph construction stage. * **Knowledge Graph:** A graph with nodes and edges representing entities and relations. * Nodes (light blue circles): * "Brarck Obama" * "Honolulu" * "USA" * "Michelle Obama" * "Washingto D.C." * Edges (black lines with labels): * "BornIn" (from "Brarck Obama" to "Honolulu") * "PoliticianOf" (from "Brarck Obama" to "USA") * "LocatedIn" (from "Honolulu" to "USA") * "CapitalOf" (from "Washingto D.C." to "USA") * "MarriedTo" (from "Brarck Obama" to "Michelle Obama") * "LiveIn" (from "Michelle Obama" to "USA") * **Arrows:** Black arrows indicate the flow of information from one stage to the next. ### Detailed Analysis or Content Details The diagram shows a pipeline: 1. **Cloze Questions:** The process begins with cloze-style questions, where a word or phrase is masked, and the LLM is expected to fill in the blank. 2. **LLMs:** The cloze questions are fed into Large Language Models (LLMs). 3. **Distilled Triples:** The LLMs process the questions and generate distilled triples, which are subject-predicate-object relationships. 4. **Construct KGs:** The distilled triples are used to construct a knowledge graph. The nodes represent entities (e.g., "Brarck Obama", "Honolulu", "USA"), and the edges represent relationships between the entities (e.g., "BornIn", "LocatedIn", "CapitalOf"). ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a method for automatically constructing knowledge graphs from text using LLMs. * The cloze question format is used to extract relationships between entities. * The distilled triples represent the extracted relationships in a structured format. * The knowledge graph visually represents the relationships between entities. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how LLMs can be used to extract structured knowledge from unstructured text. By using cloze-style questions, the LLMs can identify relationships between entities, which can then be used to construct a knowledge graph. This approach has the potential to automate the process of knowledge graph construction, making it easier to build and maintain large-scale knowledge bases. The process starts with simple questions and evolves into a structured representation of knowledge, highlighting the power of LLMs in knowledge extraction and representation. </details> Figure 20: The general framework of distilling KGs from LLMs. 5.3.4 Distilling Knowledge Graphs from LLMs LLMs have been shown to implicitly encode massive knowledge [14]. As shown in Fig. 20, some research aims to distill knowledge from LLMs to construct KGs. COMET [164] proposes a commonsense transformer model that constructs commonsense KGs by using existing tuples as a seed set of knowledge on which to train. Using this seed set, a LLM learns to adapt its learned representations to knowledge generation, and produces novel tuples that are high quality. Experimental results reveal that implicit knowledge from LLMs is transferred to generate explicit knowledge in commonsense KGs. BertNet [165] proposes a novel framework for automatic KG construction empowered by LLMs. It requires only the minimal definition of relations as inputs and automatically generates diverse prompts, and performs an efficient knowledge search within a given LLM for consistent outputs. The constructed KGs show competitive quality, diversity, and novelty with a richer set of new and complex relations, which cannot be extracted by previous methods. West et al. [166] propose a symbolic knowledge distillation framework that distills symbolic knowledge from LLMs. They first finetune a small student LLM by distilling commonsense facts from a large LLM like GPT-3. Then, the student LLM is utilized to generate commonsense KGs. 5.4 LLM-augmented KG-to-text Generation The goal of Knowledge-graph-to-text (KG-to-text) generation is to generate high-quality texts that accurately and consistently describe the input knowledge graph information [228]. KG-to-text generation connects knowledge graphs and texts, significantly improving the applicability of KG in more realistic NLG scenarios, including storytelling [229] and knowledge-grounded dialogue [230]. However, it is challenging and costly to collect large amounts of graph-text parallel data, resulting in insufficient training and poor generation quality. Thus, many research efforts resort to either: 1) leverage knowledge from LLMs or 2) construct large-scale weakly-supervised KG-text corpus to solve this issue. 5.4.1 Leveraging Knowledge from LLMs As pioneering research efforts in using LLMs for KG-to-Text generation, Ribeiro et al. [167] and Kale and Rastogi [231] directly fine-tune various LLMs, including BART and T5, with the goal of transferring LLMs knowledge for this task. As shown in Fig. 21, both works simply represent the input graph as a linear traversal and find that such a naive approach successfully outperforms many existing state-of-the-art KG-to-text generation systems. Interestingly, Ribeiro et al. [167] also find that continue pre-training could further improve model performance. However, these methods are unable to explicitly incorporate rich graph semantics in KGs. To enhance LLMs with KG structure information, JointGT [42] proposes to inject KG structure-preserving representations into the Seq2Seq large language models. Given input sub-KGs and corresponding text, JointGT first represents the KG entities and their relations as a sequence of tokens, then concatenate them with the textual tokens which are fed into LLM. After the standard self-attention module, JointGT then uses a pooling layer to obtain the contextual semantic representations of knowledge entities and relations. Finally, these pooled KG representations are then aggregated in another structure-aware self-attention layer. JointGT also deploys additional pre-training objectives, including KG and text reconstruction tasks given masked inputs, to improve the alignment between text and graph information. Li et al. [168] focus on the few-shot scenario. It first employs a novel breadth-first search (BFS) strategy to better traverse the input KG structure and feed the enhanced linearized graph representations into LLMs for high-quality generated outputs, then aligns the GCN-based and LLM-based KG entity representation. Colas et al. [169] first transform the graph into its appropriate representation before linearizing the graph. Next, each KG node is encoded via a global attention mechanism, followed by a graph-aware attention module, ultimately being decoded into a sequence of tokens. Different from these works, KG-BART [37] keeps the structure of KGs and leverages the graph attention to aggregate the rich concept semantics in the sub-KG, which enhances the model generalization on unseen concept sets. <details> <summary>x18.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph to Description Text ### Overview The image illustrates a process of converting a knowledge graph (KG) into a descriptive text using Large Language Models (LLMs). The process involves graph linearization as an intermediate step. ### Components/Axes * **Title:** KGs (Knowledge Graphs) * **Nodes in KG:** * Brarck Obama * Honolulu * USA * Washingto D.C. * Michelle Obama * **Edges in KG:** * BornIn (from Brarck Obama to Honolulu) * LocatedIn (from Honolulu to USA) * CapitalOf (from USA to Washingto D.C.) * MarriedTo (from Brarck Obama to Michelle Obama) * PoliticianOf (from Brarck Obama to USA) * LiveIn (from Michelle Obama to USA) * **Graph Linearization:** * Brack Obama [SEP] * PoliticianOf [SEP] * USA [SEP] ..... * [SEP] Michelle Obama * **LLMs:** A yellow rounded rectangle containing the text "LLMs". * **Description Text:** * Brack Obama is a politician of USA. He was born in Honolulu, and married to Michelle Obama. ### Detailed Analysis or ### Content Details 1. **Knowledge Graph (KG):** * The KG consists of five nodes: "Brarck Obama", "Honolulu", "USA", "Washingto D.C.", and "Michelle Obama". Each node is represented as a light blue circle. * The edges represent relationships between the nodes. For example, "BornIn" connects "Brarck Obama" to "Honolulu", indicating that Barack Obama was born in Honolulu. * The edges are directed, indicated by arrows. 2. **Graph Linearization:** * The graph linearization step transforms the KG into a sequence of text tokens. * The "[SEP]" token likely represents a separator or delimiter between different parts of the graph. * The linearization includes entities and relations from the KG. 3. **LLMs:** * The linearized graph is fed into LLMs. * The LLMs process the input and generate a descriptive text. 4. **Description Text:** * The output is a natural language description of the information contained in the KG. * The description includes key facts about Barack Obama, such as his profession, place of birth, and spouse. * Underlined words: Brack Obama, USA, Honolulu, Michelle Obama. ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a pipeline for converting structured knowledge into natural language text. * Graph linearization serves as an intermediate representation that bridges the gap between the KG and the LLMs. * The LLMs are used to generate coherent and informative descriptions from the linearized graph. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how knowledge graphs can be used as a source of information for generating natural language descriptions. The process involves transforming the graph into a linear sequence of tokens, which can then be processed by LLMs to produce human-readable text. This approach can be useful for a variety of applications, such as automatically generating summaries of knowledge base entries or creating personalized content based on user profiles. The use of [SEP] tokens suggests a method for structuring the input to the LLM, potentially guiding the model to generate more accurate and relevant descriptions. </details> Figure 21: The general framework of KG-to-text generation. 5.4.2 Constructing large weakly KG-text aligned Corpus Although LLMs have achieved remarkable empirical success, their unsupervised pre-training objectives are not necessarily aligned well with the task of KG-to-text generation, motivating researchers to develop large-scale KG-text aligned corpus. Jin et al. [170] propose a 1.3M unsupervised KG-to-graph training data from Wikipedia. Specifically, they first detect the entities appearing in the text via hyperlinks and named entity detectors, and then only add text that shares a common set of entities with the corresponding knowledge graph, similar to the idea of distance supervision in the relation extraction task [232]. They also provide a 1,000+ human annotated KG-to-Text test data to verify the effectiveness of the pre-trained KG-to-Text models. Similarly, Chen et al. [171] also propose a KG-grounded text corpus collected from the English Wikidump. To ensure the connection between KG and text, they only extract sentences with at least two Wikipedia anchor links. Then, they use the entities from those links to query their surrounding neighbors in WikiData and calculate the lexical overlapping between these neighbors and the original sentences. Finally, only highly overlapped pairs are selected. The authors explore both graph-based and sequence-based encoders and identify their advantages in various different tasks and settings. 5.5 LLM-augmented KG Question Answering Knowledge graph question answering (KGQA) aims to find answers to natural language questions based on the structured facts stored in knowledge graphs [233, 234]. The inevitable challenge in KGQA is to retrieve related facts and extend the reasoning advantage of KGs to QA. Therefore, recent studies adopt LLMs to bridge the gap between natural language questions and structured knowledge graphs [175, 235, 174]. The general framework of applying LLMs for KGQA is illustrated in Fig. 22, where LLMs can be used as 1) entity/relation extractors, and 2) answer reasoners. 5.5.1 LLMs as Entity/relation Extractors Entity/relation extractors are designed to identify entities and relationships mentioned in natural language questions and retrieve related facts in KGs. Given the proficiency in language comprehension, LLMs can be effectively utilized for this purpose. Lukovnikov et al. [172] are the first to utilize LLMs as classifiers for relation prediction, resulting in a notable improvement in performance compared to shallow neural networks. Nan et al. [174] introduce two LLM-based KGQA frameworks that adopt LLMs to detect mentioned entities and relations. Then, they query the answer in KGs using the extracted entity-relation pairs. QA-GNN [131] uses LLMs to encode the question and candidate answer pairs, which are adopted to estimate the importance of relative KG entities. The entities are retrieved to form a subgraph, where an answer reasoning is conducted by a graph neural network. Luo et al. [173] use LLMs to calculate the similarities between relations and questions to retrieve related facts, formulated as $$ s(r,q)=\text{LLM}(r)^{\top}\text{LLM}(q), \tag{12} $$ where $q$ denotes the question, $r$ denotes the relation, and $\text{LLM}(·)$ would generate representation for $q$ and $r$ , respectively. Furthermore, Zhang et al. [236] propose a LLM-based path retriever to retrieve question-related relations hop-by-hop and construct several paths. The probability of each path can be calculated as $$ P(p|q)=\prod_{t=1}^{|p|}s(r_{t},q), \tag{13} $$ where $p$ denotes the path, and $r_{t}$ denotes the relation at the $t$ -th hop of $p$ . The retrieved relations and paths can be used as context knowledge to improve the performance of answer reasoners as $$ P(a|q)=\sum_{p\in\mathcal{P}}P(a|p)P(p|q), \tag{14} $$ where $\mathcal{P}$ denotes retrieved paths and $a$ denotes the answer. <details> <summary>x19.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph Question Answering System ### Overview The image depicts a system for answering questions using knowledge graphs (KGs) and large language models (LLMs). The system takes a question as input, extracts relevant entities and relations, retrieves information from KGs, reasons over the retrieved information using LLMs, and outputs a score representing the confidence in the answer. ### Components/Axes * **Top-Left:** "Score" - Indicates the output of the system. * **Top:** "Answer Reasoner" - The module responsible for reasoning over the retrieved information. * "LLMs" - A yellow box representing the Large Language Models used for reasoning. * "[CLS]" - A grey box. * "Question" - A yellow box. * "[SEP]" - A grey box. * "Related Facts" - A yellow box. * "[SEP]" - A grey box. * "Candidates" - A yellow box. * "[SEP]" - A grey box. * **Center:** "Retrieve in KGs" - Text indicating the retrieval of information from Knowledge Graphs. * "KGs" - A light blue box representing the Knowledge Graphs. * **Bottom-Center:** * "Entity Neil Armstrong" - A light blue box representing the entity extracted from the question. * "BornIn Relation" - A light blue box representing the relation extracted from the question. * **Bottom:** "Relation/entity Extractor" - The module responsible for extracting entities and relations from the input question. * "LLMs" - A yellow box representing the Large Language Models used for extraction. * **Bottom:** "Question: Where was Neil Armstrong born in?" - The input question. ### Detailed Analysis The diagram illustrates the flow of information in a knowledge graph question answering system. 1. **Input Question:** The system starts with the question "Where was Neil Armstrong born in?". 2. **Relation/entity Extractor:** The "Relation/entity Extractor" module, powered by LLMs, extracts the entity "Neil Armstrong" and the relation "BornIn Relation" from the question. 3. **KGs Retrieval:** The extracted entity and relation are used to retrieve relevant information from the "KGs" (Knowledge Graphs). 4. **Answer Reasoner:** The retrieved information, along with the original question, is fed into the "Answer Reasoner" module. This module, powered by LLMs, reasons over the information to generate candidate answers. The input to the LLMs includes "[CLS]", "Question", "[SEP]", "Related Facts", "[SEP]", "Candidates", "[SEP]". 5. **Output Score:** The system outputs a "Score" representing the confidence in the answer. ### Key Observations * The system uses LLMs for both entity/relation extraction and answer reasoning. * The KGs serve as the source of factual knowledge. * The "[CLS]" and "[SEP]" tokens are used to structure the input to the LLMs. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a common architecture for knowledge graph question answering systems. The system leverages the power of LLMs to understand the question, extract relevant information from KGs, and reason over the retrieved information to generate answers. The use of "[CLS]" and "[SEP]" tokens suggests that the LLMs are likely using a transformer-based architecture. The system aims to provide accurate answers to questions by combining the strengths of LLMs and KGs. </details> Figure 22: The general framework of applying LLMs for knowledge graph question answering (KGQA). 5.5.2 LLMs as Answer Reasoners Answer reasoners are designed to reason over the retrieved facts and generate answers. LLMs can be used as answer reasoners to generate answers directly. For example, as shown in Fig. 3 22, DEKCOR [175] concatenates the retrieved facts with questions and candidate answers as $$ x=\texttt{[CLS]}\ q\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ \text{Related Facts}\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ a\ % \texttt{[SEP]}, \tag{15} $$ where $a$ denotes candidate answers. Then, it feeds them into LLMs to predict answer scores. After utilizing LLMs to generate the representation of $x$ as QA context, DRLK [176] proposes a Dynamic Hierarchical Reasoner to capture the interactions between QA context and answers for answer prediction. Yan et al. [235] propose a LLM-based KGQA framework consisting of two stages: (1) retrieve related facts from KGs and (2) generate answers based on the retrieved facts. The first stage is similar to the entity/relation extractors. Given a candidate answer entity $a$ , it extracts a series of paths $p_{1},...,p_{n}$ from KGs. But the second stage is a LLM-based answer reasoner. It first verbalizes the paths by using the entity names and relation names in KGs. Then, it concatenates the question $q$ and all paths $p_{1},...,p_{n}$ to make an input sample as $$ x=\texttt{[CLS]}\ q\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ p_{1}\ \texttt{[SEP]}\ \cdots\ \texttt{[% SEP]}\ p_{n}\ \texttt{[SEP]}. \tag{16} $$ These paths are regarded as the related facts for the candidate answer $a$ . Finally, it uses LLMs to predict whether the hypothesis: “ $a$ is the answer of $q$ ” is supported by those facts, which is formulated as $$ \displaystyle e_{\texttt{[CLS]}} \displaystyle=\text{LLM}(x), \displaystyle s \displaystyle=\sigma(\text{MLP}(e_{\texttt{[CLS]}})), \tag{17} $$ where it encodes $x$ using a LLM and feeds representation corresponding to [CLS] token for binary classification, and $\sigma(·)$ denotes the sigmoid function. To better guide LLMs reason through KGs, OreoLM [177] proposes a Knowledge Interaction Layer (KIL) which is inserted amid LLM layers. KIL interacts with a KG reasoning module, where it discovers different reasoning paths, and then the reasoning module can reason over the paths to generate answers. GreaseLM [178] fuses the representations from LLMs and graph neural networks to effectively reason over KG facts and language context. UniKGQA [43] unifies the facts retrieval and reasoning into a unified framework. UniKGQA consists of two modules. The first module is a semantic matching module that uses a LLM to match questions with their corresponding relations semantically. The second module is a matching information propagation module, which propagates the matching information along directed edges on KGs for answer reasoning. Similarly, ReLMKG [179] performs joint reasoning on a large language model and the associated knowledge graph. The question and verbalized paths are encoded by the language model, and different layers of the language model produce outputs that guide a graph neural network to perform message passing. This process utilizes the explicit knowledge contained in the structured knowledge graph for reasoning purposes. StructGPT [237] adopts a customized interface to allow large language models (e.g., ChatGPT) directly reasoning on KGs to perform multi-step question answering. TABLE IV: Summary of methods that synergize KGs and LLMs. | Synergized Knowledge representation | JointGT [42] | 2021 | | --- | --- | --- | | KEPLER [40] | 2021 | | | DRAGON [44] | 2022 | | | HKLM [238] | 2023 | | | Synergized Reasoning | LARK [45] | 2023 | | Siyuan et al. [46] | 2023 | | | KSL [239] | 2023 | | | StructGPT [237] | 2023 | | | Think-on-graph [240] | 2023 | | 6 Synergized LLMs + KGs The synergy of LLMs and KGs has attracted increasing attention these years, which marries the merits of LLMs and KGs to mutually enhance performance in various downstream applications. For example, LLMs can be used to understand natural language, while KGs are treated as a knowledge base, which provides factual knowledge. The unification of LLMs and KGs could result in a powerful model for knowledge representation and reasoning. In this section, we will discuss the state-of-the-art Synergized LLMs + KGs from two perspectives: 1) Synergized Knowledge Representation, and 2) Synergized Reasoning. Representative works are summarized in Table IV. <details> <summary>x20.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Text-Knowledge Fusion Module ### Overview The image is a diagram illustrating a Text-Knowledge Fusion Module, showing the flow of information from input text and a knowledge graph through T-encoders and K-encoders, ultimately producing text outputs and knowledge graph outputs. ### Components/Axes * **T-encoder:** Located on the left side of the diagram. * **N Layers:** Indicates the number of layers in the T-encoder. * **Input Text:** The initial input to the T-encoder. * **Self-Attention:** A processing block within the T-encoder. * **K-encoder:** Located on the left side of the diagram. * **M Layers:** Indicates the number of layers in the K-encoder. * **Text-Knowledge Fusion Module:** A module that combines information from both the T-encoder and the K-encoder. * **Self-Attention:** Processing blocks within the K-encoder. * **Knowledge Graph:** Located on the right side of the diagram. * A network of nodes and edges representing relationships between concepts. * **Text Outputs:** The final output derived from the text input. Located at the top-left. * **Knowledge Graph Outputs:** The final output derived from the knowledge graph. Located at the top-right. ### Detailed Analysis * **Input Text:** The "Input Text" block feeds into a "Self-Attention" block within the T-encoder. * **Knowledge Graph:** The "Knowledge Graph" feeds into a "Self-Attention" block within the K-encoder. The knowledge graph is represented by a dashed-line box containing a network of nodes (circles) connected by directed edges (arrows). * **T-encoder and K-encoder:** The outputs of the "Self-Attention" blocks in both the T-encoder and K-encoder are fed into the "Text-Knowledge Fusion Module". * **Outputs:** The "Text-Knowledge Fusion Module" produces both "Text Outputs" and "Knowledge Graph Outputs". ### Key Observations * The diagram highlights the fusion of text and knowledge graph information. * Self-attention mechanisms are used in both the T-encoder and K-encoder. * The number of layers in the T-encoder (N) and K-encoder (M) are explicitly noted, suggesting their importance. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a system that leverages both text and a knowledge graph to generate outputs. The T-encoder processes the input text, while the K-encoder processes the knowledge graph. The "Text-Knowledge Fusion Module" combines the information from both encoders, allowing the system to generate outputs that are informed by both textual data and structured knowledge. The use of self-attention mechanisms suggests that the system is designed to capture long-range dependencies within both the text and the knowledge graph. The separation of the encoders into N and M layers suggests that the depth of processing for each input type can be independently configured. </details> Figure 23: Synergized knowledge representation by additional KG fusion modules. 6.1 Synergized Knowledge Representation Text corpus and knowledge graphs both contain enormous knowledge. However, the knowledge in text corpus is usually implicit and unstructured, while the knowledge in KGs is explicit and structured. Synergized Knowledge Representation aims to design a synergized model that can effectively represent knowledge from both LLMs and KGs. The synergized model can provide a better understanding of the knowledge from both sources, making it valuable for many downstream tasks. To jointly represent the knowledge, researchers propose the synergized models by introducing additional KG fusion modules, which are jointly trained with LLMs. As shown in Fig. 23, ERNIE [35] proposes a textual-knowledge dual encoder architecture where a T-encoder first encodes the input sentences, then a K-encoder processes knowledge graphs which are fused them with the textual representation from the T-encoder. BERT-MK [241] employs a similar dual-encoder architecture but it introduces additional information of neighboring entities in the knowledge encoder component during the pre-training of LLMs. However, some of the neighboring entities in KGs may not be relevant to the input text, resulting in extra redundancy and noise. CokeBERT [242] focuses on this issue and proposes a GNN-based module to filter out irrelevant KG entities using the input text. JAKET [243] proposes to fuse the entity information in the middle of the large language model. KEPLER [40] presents a unified model for knowledge embedding and pre-trained language representation. In KEPLER, they encode textual entity descriptions with a LLM as their embeddings, and then jointly optimize the knowledge embedding and language modeling objectives. JointGT [42] proposes a graph-text joint representation learning model, which proposes three pre-training tasks to align representations of graph and text. DRAGON [44] presents a self-supervised method to pre-train a joint language-knowledge foundation model from text and KG. It takes text segments and relevant KG subgraphs as input and bidirectionally fuses information from both modalities. Then, DRAGON utilizes two self-supervised reasoning tasks, i.e., masked language modeling and KG link prediction to optimize the model parameters. HKLM [238] introduces a unified LLM which incorporates KGs to learn representations of domain-specific knowledge. 6.2 Synergized Reasoning To better utilize the knowledge from text corpus and knowledge graph reasoning, Synergized Reasoning aims to design a synergized model that can effectively conduct reasoning with both LLMs and KGs. LLM-KG Fusion Reasoning. LLM-KG Fusion Reasoning leverages two separated LLM and KG encoders to process the text and relevant KG inputs [244]. These two encoders are equally important and jointly fusing the knowledge from two sources for reasoning. To improve the interaction between text and knowledge, KagNet [38] proposes to first encode the input KG, and then augment the input textual representation. In contrast, MHGRN [234] uses the final LLM outputs of the input text to guide the reasoning process on the KGs. Yet, both of them only design a single-direction interaction between the text and KGs. To tackle this issue, QA-GNN [131] proposes to use a GNN-based model to jointly reason over input context and KG information via message passing. Specifically, QA-GNN represents the input textual information as a special node via a pooling operation and connects this node with other entities in KG. However, the textual inputs are only pooled into a single dense vector, limiting the information fusion performance. JointLK [245] then proposes a framework with fine-grained interaction between any tokens in the textual inputs and any KG entities through LM-to-KG and KG-to-LM bi-directional attention mechanism. As shown in Fig. 24, pairwise dot-product scores are calculated over all textual tokens and KG entities, the bi-directional attentive scores are computed separately. In addition, at each jointLK layer, the KGs are also dynamically pruned based on the attention score to allow later layers to focus on more important sub-KG structures. Despite being effective, in JointLK, the fusion process between the input text and KG still uses the final LLM outputs as the input text representations. GreaseLM [178] designs deep and rich interaction between the input text tokens and KG entities at each layer of the LLMs. The architecture and fusion approach is mostly similar to ERNIE [35] discussed in Section 6.1, except that GreaseLM does not use the text-only T-encoder to handle input text. <details> <summary>x21.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## System Diagram: Knowledge Graph Enhanced Reasoning ### Overview The image presents a system diagram illustrating a knowledge graph enhanced reasoning process. It depicts the flow of information from input (Question and Option) through various layers including LLM Encoder, KG Encoder, Joint Reasoning Layer, and Dynamic Pruning, ultimately leading to an Answer. The diagram also includes detailed views of the attention mechanisms between Language Model (LM) and Knowledge Graph (KG) representations. ### Components/Axes * **Overall Structure:** The diagram is structured hierarchically, showing the flow of information from bottom to top. * **Input:** "Question Option" (yellow box) * **LLM Encoder:** (yellow box) * **KG Encoder:** (light blue box) * **Joint Reasoning Layer:** (gray box) * **Dynamic Pruning:** (light blue box) * **Output:** "Answer" (green box) * **Answer Inference:** (gray box encompassing the KG Encoder, Joint Reasoning Layer, and Dynamic Pruning) * **Attention Mechanisms:** Two detailed views enclosed in dashed boxes illustrate the attention mechanisms between LM and KG. * **Top-Right:** "LM to KG Attention" * **Bottom-Right:** LM and KG Representation interaction ### Detailed Analysis or Content Details 1. **Input Layer:** * The input consists of a "Question" and an "Option", separated by "<SEP>". * This input feeds into the "LLM Encoder" (yellow box). 2. **Encoding Layers:** * The "LLM Encoder" (yellow) processes the input and passes its output to the "Joint Reasoning Layer" (gray). * A separate "KG Encoder" (light blue) also feeds into the "Joint Reasoning Layer" (gray). * The "KG Encoder" receives input from a knowledge graph structure, represented by interconnected nodes (orange, light blue, and green). 3. **Joint Reasoning and Pruning:** * The "Joint Reasoning Layer" (gray) combines the outputs from the "LLM Encoder" and the "KG Encoder". * The output of the "Joint Reasoning Layer" is then fed into the "Dynamic Pruning" (light blue) module. 4. **Output Layer:** * The "Dynamic Pruning" module produces the final "Answer" (green). 5. **Attention Mechanism Details (Top-Right):** * Label: "LM to KG Attention" * Shows a network of nodes (orange, light blue, and green) representing the attention flow. * The flow starts with a network of nodes (orange, light blue, and green), which is then transformed via an attention mechanism (represented by crossed circles) into another network of nodes (orange, light blue, and green). * The arrow indicates the direction of attention flow. 6. **Attention Mechanism Details (Bottom-Right):** * "LM Rep." (Language Model Representation) feeds into a multiplication operation (represented by a circled cross). * "KG Rep." (Knowledge Graph Representation) also feeds into the same multiplication operation. * The output of this multiplication, labeled "LM to KG Att.", feeds into an addition operation (represented by a circled plus). * "KG to LM Att." also feeds into the same addition operation. ### Key Observations * The diagram highlights the integration of a Knowledge Graph (KG) with a Language Model (LM) for enhanced reasoning. * The attention mechanisms play a crucial role in guiding the reasoning process by focusing on relevant information from both the LM and KG. * The "Dynamic Pruning" module suggests a mechanism for filtering or refining the reasoning process to arrive at the final answer. ### Interpretation The diagram illustrates a system designed to leverage both linguistic knowledge (from the LLM) and structured knowledge (from the KG) to improve answer inference. The attention mechanisms allow the system to selectively focus on the most relevant parts of the KG when processing the language input, and vice versa. The "Dynamic Pruning" step likely serves to eliminate irrelevant or noisy information, leading to a more accurate and reliable answer. The system architecture suggests a sophisticated approach to question answering that goes beyond simple pattern matching and incorporates structured knowledge for more informed reasoning. </details> Figure 24: The framework of LLM-KG Fusion Reasoning. LLMs as Agents Reasoning. Instead using two encoders to fuse the knowledge, LLMs can also be treated as agents to interact with the KGs to conduct reasoning [246], as illustrated in Fig. 25. KD-CoT [247] iteratively retrieves facts from KGs and produces faithful reasoning traces, which guide LLMs to generate answers. KSL [239] teaches LLMs to search on KGs to retrieve relevant facts and then generate answers. StructGPT [237] designs several API interfaces to allow LLMs to access the structural data and perform reasoning by traversing on KGs. Think-on-graph [240] provides a flexible plug-and-play framework where LLM agents iteratively execute beam searches on KGs to discover the reasoning paths and generate answers. To enhance the agent abilities, AgentTuning [248] presents several instruction-tuning datasets to guide LLM agents to perform reasoning on KGs. <details> <summary>x22.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph Reasoning ### Overview The image illustrates how a Language Learning Model (LLM) agent uses a knowledge graph to answer a question about Barack Obama's country of origin. The diagram shows the flow of information from the question, through the LLM and knowledge graph, to the final answer. ### Components/Axes * **Knowledge Graph:** A network of interconnected entities and relationships, enclosed in a dashed rounded rectangle. * **Nodes:** Represented as circles, containing entities like "Michelle Obama", "1776", "Honolulu", "USA", "Hawaii", and "Barack Obama". * **Edges:** Represented as arrows, indicating relationships between entities, such as "Marry_to", "Founded_in", "City_of", "Located_in", and "Born_in". Red arrows appear to indicate the path of reasoning. * **LLM Agent:** Represented by a yellow square containing a gear and person icon, located on the left side of the Knowledge Graph. * **Reasoning-on-Graphs:** A process involving LLMs and Knowledge Graphs (KGs), depicted below the Knowledge Graph. * **LLMs:** Represented by a yellow rounded rectangle. * **KGs:** Represented by a blue rounded rectangle. * **Question:** "Which country is Barack Obama from?" located on the bottom left. * **Answer:** "USA" located on the bottom right. * **Arrows:** Indicate the flow of information: Question -> Reasoning-on-Graphs -> Answer. ### Detailed Analysis * **Knowledge Graph Details:** * Michelle Obama "Marry_to" Barack Obama (gray arrow) * Barack Obama "Born_in" Honolulu (red arrow) * Honolulu "City_of" USA (red arrow) * Honolulu "Located_in" Hawaii (gray arrow) * USA "Founded_in" 1776 (gray arrow) * **Reasoning Flow:** 1. The question "Which country is Barack Obama from?" is posed. 2. The LLM agent utilizes the knowledge graph to find the answer. 3. The knowledge graph contains the information that Barack Obama was "Born_in" Honolulu, and Honolulu is a "City_of" USA. 4. The LLM agent infers that Barack Obama is from the USA. 5. The answer "USA" is provided. ### Key Observations * The diagram highlights the use of a knowledge graph to answer a question. * The red arrows indicate the path of reasoning used to arrive at the answer. * The LLM agent acts as an interface between the question and the knowledge graph. ### Interpretation The diagram demonstrates how LLMs can leverage knowledge graphs to perform reasoning and answer questions. The knowledge graph provides structured information about entities and their relationships, which the LLM can use to infer answers to complex questions. In this specific example, the LLM uses the knowledge graph to determine that Barack Obama is from the USA by tracing the relationships between Barack Obama, Honolulu, and the USA. This illustrates the power of combining LLMs with knowledge graphs for question answering and other knowledge-intensive tasks. </details> Figure 25: Using LLMs as agents for reasoning on KGs. Comparison and Discussion. LLM-KG Fusion Reasoning combines the LLM encoder and KG encoder to represent knowledge in a unified manner. It then employs a synergized reasoning module to jointly reason the results. This framework allows for different encoders and reasoning modules, which are trained end-to-end to effectively utilize the knowledge and reasoning capabilities of LLMs and KGs. However, these additional modules may introduce extra parameters and computational costs while lacking interpretability. LLMs as Agents for KG reasoning provides a flexible framework for reasoning on KGs without additional training cost, which can be generalized to different LLMs and KGs. Meanwhile, the reasoning process is interpretable, which can be used to explain the results. Nevertheless, defining the actions and policies for LLM agents is also challenging. The synergy of LLMs and KGs is still an ongoing research topic, with the potential to have more powerful frameworks in the future. 7 Future Directions and Milestones In this section, we discuss the future directions and several milestones in the research area of unifying KGs and LLMs. 7.1 KGs for Hallucination Detection in LLMs The hallucination problem in LLMs, which generates factually incorrect content, significantly hinders the reliability of LLMs. As discussed in Section 4, existing studies try to utilize KGs to obtain more reliable LLMs through pre-training or KG-enhanced inference. Despite the efforts, the issue of hallucination may continue to persist in the realm of LLMs for the foreseeable future. Consequently, in order to gain the public’s trust and border applications, it is imperative to detect and assess instances of hallucination within LLMs and other forms of AI-generated content (AIGC). Existing methods strive to detect hallucination by training a neural classifier on a small set of documents [249], which are neither robust nor powerful to handle ever-growing LLMs. Recently, researchers try to use KGs as an external source to validate LLMs [250]. Further studies combine LLMs and KGs to achieve a generalized fact-checking model that can detect hallucinations across domains [251]. Therefore, it opens a new door to utilizing KGs for hallucination detection. 7.2 KGs for Editing Knowledge in LLMs Although LLMs are capable of storing massive real-world knowledge, they cannot quickly update their internal knowledge updated as real-world situations change. There are some research efforts proposed for editing knowledge in LLMs [252] without re-training the whole LLMs. Yet, such solutions still suffer from poor performance or computational overhead [253]. Existing studies [254] also reveal that edit a single fact would cause a ripple effect for other related knowledge. Therefore, it is necessary to develop a more efficient and effective method to edit knowledge in LLMs. Recently, researchers try to leverage KGs to edit knowledge in LLMs efficiently. 7.3 KGs for Black-box LLMs Knowledge Injection Although pre-training and knowledge editing could update LLMs to catch up with the latest knowledge, they still need to access the internal structures and parameters of LLMs. However, many state-of-the-art large LLMs (e.g., ChatGPT) only provide APIs for users and developers to access, making themselves black-box to the public. Consequently, it is impossible to follow conventional KG injection approaches described [244, 38] that change LLM structure by adding additional knowledge fusion modules. Converting various types of knowledge into different text prompts seems to be a feasible solution. However, it is unclear whether these prompts can generalize well to new LLMs. Moreover, the prompt-based approach is limited to the length of input tokens of LLMs. Therefore, how to enable effective knowledge injection for black-box LLMs is still an open question for us to explore [255, 256]. 7.4 Multi-Modal LLMs for KGs Current knowledge graphs typically rely on textual and graph structure to handle KG-related applications. However, real-world knowledge graphs are often constructed by data from diverse modalities [257, 258, 99]. Therefore, effectively leveraging representations from multiple modalities would be a significant challenge for future research in KGs [259]. One potential solution is to develop methods that can accurately encode and align entities across different modalities. Recently, with the development of multi-modal LLMs [260, 98], leveraging LLMs for modality alignment holds promise in this regard. But, bridging the gap between multi-modal LLMs and KG structure remains a crucial challenge in this field, demanding further investigation and advancements. 7.5 LLMs for Understanding KG Structure Conventional LLMs trained on plain text data are not designed to understand structured data like knowledge graphs. Thus, LLMs might not fully grasp or understand the information conveyed by the KG structure. A straightforward way is to linearize the structured data into a sentence that LLMs can understand. However, the scale of the KGs makes it impossible to linearize the whole KGs as input. Moreover, the linearization process may lose some underlying information in KGs. Therefore, it is necessary to develop LLMs that can directly understand the KG structure and reason over it [237]. <details> <summary>x23.png Details</summary>  ### Visual Description ## Diagram: Knowledge Graph and Large Language Model Synergies ### Overview The image presents a diagram illustrating a three-stage process involving Knowledge Graphs (KGs) and Large Language Models (LLMs). The diagram outlines how KGs and LLMs are enhanced and synergized to achieve specific outcomes. ### Components/Axes * **Stages:** The diagram is divided into three stages, represented by right-pointing arrows. * **Stage 1:** Labeled "Stage 1" with a gold/orange arrow. * **Stage 2:** Labeled "Stage 2" with a purple arrow. * **Stage 3:** Labeled "Stage 3" with a green arrow. * **Input (Stage 1):** Two rounded rectangles on the left represent the inputs to the process. * **Top Input:** Labeled "KG-enhanced LLMs" with a gold/orange border. * **Bottom Input:** Labeled "LLM-augmented KGs" with a gold/orange border. * **Synergy (Stage 2):** A rounded rectangle in the center represents the synergy stage. * **Center Node:** Labeled "Synergized LLMs + KGs" with a purple border. * **Outputs (Stage 3):** Three rounded rectangles on the right represent the outputs of the process. * **Top Output:** Labeled "Graph Structure Understanding" with a green border. * **Middle Output:** Labeled "Multi-modality" with a green border. * **Bottom Output:** Labeled "Knowledge Updating" with a green border. * **Flow:** Arrows indicate the flow of information from the inputs to the synergy stage and then to the outputs. ### Detailed Analysis * **Stage 1:** * "KG-enhanced LLMs" represents Large Language Models that have been improved or augmented using Knowledge Graphs. * "LLM-augmented KGs" represents Knowledge Graphs that have been improved or augmented using Large Language Models. * **Stage 2:** * "Synergized LLMs + KGs" represents the combination and integration of KG-enhanced LLMs and LLM-augmented KGs. * **Stage 3:** * "Graph Structure Understanding" represents the ability to understand and reason about the structure of graphs. * "Multi-modality" represents the ability to process and integrate information from multiple modalities (e.g., text, images, audio). * "Knowledge Updating" represents the ability to update and maintain knowledge over time. ### Key Observations * The diagram illustrates a sequential process where KGs and LLMs are initially enhanced separately, then synergized, and finally used to achieve specific outcomes. * The color-coding of the stages (orange, purple, green) provides a visual cue for understanding the flow of information. * The diagram highlights the importance of both KG-enhanced LLMs and LLM-augmented KGs in achieving the desired outcomes. ### Interpretation The diagram suggests a strategic approach to leveraging the strengths of both Knowledge Graphs and Large Language Models. By first enhancing each technology separately and then synergizing them, the process aims to achieve a more comprehensive and effective understanding of data, leading to improved graph structure understanding, multi-modality processing, and knowledge updating. The diagram emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between KGs and LLMs, where each technology can enhance the other, leading to a more powerful combined system. </details> Figure 26: The milestones of unifying KGs and LLMs. 7.6 Synergized LLMs and KGs for Birectional Reasoning KGs and LLMs are two complementary technologies that can synergize each other. However, the synergy of LLMs and KGs is less explored by existing researchers. A desired synergy of LLMs and KGs would involve leveraging the strengths of both technologies to overcome their individual limitations. LLMs, such as ChatGPT, excel in generating human-like text and understanding natural language, while KGs are structured databases that capture and represent knowledge in a structured manner. By combining their capabilities, we can create a powerful system that benefits from the contextual understanding of LLMs and the structured knowledge representation of KGs. To better unify LLMs and KGs, many advanced techniques need to be incorporated, such as multi-modal learning [261], graph neural network [262], and continuous learning [263]. Last, the synergy of LLMs and KGs can be applied to many real-world applications, such as search engines [100], recommender systems [10, 89], and drug discovery. With a given application problem, we can apply a KG to perform a knowledge-driven search for potential goals and unseen data, and simultaneously start with LLMs to perform a data/text-driven inference to see what new data/goal items can be derived. When the knowledge-based search is combined with data/text-driven inference, they can mutually validate each other, resulting in efficient and effective solutions powered by dual-driving wheels. Therefore, we can anticipate increasing attention to unlock the potential of integrating KGs and LLMs for diverse downstream applications with both generative and reasoning capabilities in the near future. 8 Conclusion Unifying large language models (LLMs) and knowledge graphs (KGs) is an active research direction that has attracted increasing attention from both academia and industry. In this article, we provide a thorough overview of the recent research in this field. We first introduce different manners that integrate KGs to enhance LLMs. Then, we introduce existing methods that apply LLMs for KGs and establish taxonomy based on varieties of KG tasks. Finally, we discuss the challenges and future directions in this field. We envision that there will be multiple stages (milestones) in the roadmap of unifying KGs and LLMs, as shown in Fig. 26. In particular, we will anticipate increasing research on three stages: Stage 1: KG-enhanced LLMs, LLM-augmented KGs, Stage 2: Synergized LLMs + KGs, and Stage 3: Graph Structure Understanding, Multi-modality, Knowledge Updating. We hope that this article will provide a guideline to advance future research. Acknowledgments This research was supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) under grants FT210100097 and DP240101547 and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under grant 62120106008. References - [1] J. Devlin, M.-W. Chang, K. Lee, and K. Toutanova, “Bert: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1810.04805, 2018. - [2] Y. Liu, M. Ott, N. Goyal, J. Du, M. Joshi, D. Chen, O. Levy, M. Lewis, L. Zettlemoyer, and V. Stoyanov, “Roberta: A robustly optimized bert pretraining approach,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1907.11692, 2019. - [3] C. Raffel, N. Shazeer, A. Roberts, K. Lee, S. Narang, M. Matena, Y. Zhou, W. Li, and P. J. Liu, “Exploring the limits of transfer learning with a unified text-to-text transformer,” The Journal of Machine Learning Research, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 5485–5551, 2020. - [4] D. Su, Y. Xu, G. I. Winata, P. Xu, H. Kim, Z. Liu, and P. Fung, “Generalizing question answering system with pre-trained language model fine-tuning,” in Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop on Machine Reading for Question Answering, 2019, pp. 203–211. - [5] M. Lewis, Y. Liu, N. Goyal, M. Ghazvininejad, A. Mohamed, O. Levy, V. Stoyanov, and L. Zettlemoyer, “Bart: Denoising sequence-to-sequence pre-training for natural language generation, translation, and comprehension,” in ACL, 2020, pp. 7871–7880. - [6] J. Li, T. Tang, W. X. Zhao, and J.-R. Wen, “Pretrained language models for text generation: A survey,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2105.10311, 2021. - [7] J. Wei, Y. Tay, R. Bommasani, C. Raffel, B. Zoph, S. Borgeaud, D. Yogatama, M. Bosma, D. Zhou, D. Metzler et al., “Emergent abilities of large language models,” Transactions on Machine Learning Research. - [8] K. Malinka, M. Perešíni, A. Firc, O. Hujňák, and F. Januš, “On the educational impact of chatgpt: Is artificial intelligence ready to obtain a university degree?” arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.11146, 2023. - [9] Z. Li, C. Wang, Z. Liu, H. Wang, S. Wang, and C. Gao, “Cctest: Testing and repairing code completion systems,” ICSE, 2023. - [10] J. Liu, C. Liu, R. Lv, K. Zhou, and Y. Zhang, “Is chatgpt a good recommender? a preliminary study,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.10149, 2023. - [11] W. X. Zhao, K. Zhou, J. Li, T. Tang, X. Wang, Y. Hou, Y. Min, B. Zhang, J. Zhang, Z. Dong et al., “A survey of large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.18223, 2023. - [12] X. Qiu, T. Sun, Y. Xu, Y. Shao, N. Dai, and X. Huang, “Pre-trained models for natural language processing: A survey,” Science China Technological Sciences, vol. 63, no. 10, pp. 1872–1897, 2020. - [13] J. Yang, H. Jin, R. Tang, X. Han, Q. Feng, H. Jiang, B. Yin, and X. Hu, “Harnessing the power of llms in practice: A survey on chatgpt and beyond,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.13712, 2023. - [14] F. Petroni, T. Rocktäschel, S. Riedel, P. Lewis, A. Bakhtin, Y. Wu, and A. Miller, “Language models as knowledge bases?” in EMNLP-IJCNLP, 2019, pp. 2463–2473. - [15] Z. Ji, N. Lee, R. Frieske, T. Yu, D. Su, Y. Xu, E. Ishii, Y. J. Bang, A. Madotto, and P. Fung, “Survey of hallucination in natural language generation,” ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 55, no. 12, pp. 1–38, 2023. - [16] H. Zhang, H. Song, S. Li, M. Zhou, and D. Song, “A survey of controllable text generation using transformer-based pre-trained language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.05337, 2022. - [17] M. Danilevsky, K. Qian, R. Aharonov, Y. Katsis, B. Kawas, and P. Sen, “A survey of the state of explainable ai for natural language processing,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.00711, 2020. - [18] J. Wang, X. Hu, W. Hou, H. Chen, R. Zheng, Y. Wang, L. Yang, H. Huang, W. Ye, X. Geng et al., “On the robustness of chatgpt: An adversarial and out-of-distribution perspective,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.12095, 2023. - [19] S. Ji, S. Pan, E. Cambria, P. Marttinen, and S. Y. Philip, “A survey on knowledge graphs: Representation, acquisition, and applications,” IEEE TNNLS, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 494–514, 2021. - [20] D. Vrandečić and M. Krötzsch, “Wikidata: a free collaborative knowledgebase,” Communications of the ACM, vol. 57, no. 10, pp. 78–85, 2014. - [21] S. Hu, L. Zou, and X. Zhang, “A state-transition framework to answer complex questions over knowledge base,” in EMNLP, 2018, pp. 2098–2108. - [22] J. Zhang, B. Chen, L. Zhang, X. Ke, and H. Ding, “Neural, symbolic and neural-symbolic reasoning on knowledge graphs,” AI Open, vol. 2, pp. 14–35, 2021. - [23] B. Abu-Salih, “Domain-specific knowledge graphs: A survey,” Journal of Network and Computer Applications, vol. 185, p. 103076, 2021. - [24] T. Mitchell, W. Cohen, E. Hruschka, P. Talukdar, B. Yang, J. Betteridge, A. Carlson, B. Dalvi, M. Gardner, B. Kisiel, K. Jayant, L. Ni, M. Kathryn, M. Thahir, N. Ndapandula, P. Emmanouil, R. Alan, S. Mehdi, S. Burr, W. Derry, G. Abhinav, C. Xi, S. Abulhair, and W. Joel, “Never-ending learning,” Communications of the ACM, vol. 61, no. 5, pp. 103–115, 2018. - [25] L. Zhong, J. Wu, Q. Li, H. Peng, and X. Wu, “A comprehensive survey on automatic knowledge graph construction,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.05019, 2023. - [26] L. Yao, C. Mao, and Y. Luo, “Kg-bert: Bert for knowledge graph completion,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1909.03193, 2019. - [27] L. Luo, Y.-F. Li, G. Haffari, and S. Pan, “Normalizing flow-based neural process for few-shot knowledge graph completion,” SIGIR, 2023. - [28] Y. Bang, S. Cahyawijaya, N. Lee, W. Dai, D. Su, B. Wilie, H. Lovenia, Z. Ji, T. Yu, W. Chung et al., “A multitask, multilingual, multimodal evaluation of chatgpt on reasoning, hallucination, and interactivity,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.04023, 2023. - [29] X. Wang, J. Wei, D. Schuurmans, Q. Le, E. Chi, and D. Zhou, “Self-consistency improves chain of thought reasoning in language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.11171, 2022. - [30] O. Golovneva, M. Chen, S. Poff, M. Corredor, L. Zettlemoyer, M. Fazel-Zarandi, and A. Celikyilmaz, “Roscoe: A suite of metrics for scoring step-by-step reasoning,” ICLR, 2023. - [31] F. M. Suchanek, G. Kasneci, and G. Weikum, “Yago: a core of semantic knowledge,” in WWW, 2007, pp. 697–706. - [32] A. Carlson, J. Betteridge, B. Kisiel, B. Settles, E. Hruschka, and T. Mitchell, “Toward an architecture for never-ending language learning,” in Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence, vol. 24, no. 1, 2010, pp. 1306–1313. - [33] A. Bordes, N. Usunier, A. Garcia-Duran, J. Weston, and O. Yakhnenko, “Translating embeddings for modeling multi-relational data,” NeurIPS, vol. 26, 2013. - [34] G. Wan, S. Pan, C. Gong, C. Zhou, and G. Haffari, “Reasoning like human: Hierarchical reinforcement learning for knowledge graph reasoning,” in AAAI, 2021, pp. 1926–1932. - [35] Z. Zhang, X. Han, Z. Liu, X. Jiang, M. Sun, and Q. Liu, “ERNIE: Enhanced language representation with informative entities,” in ACL, 2019, pp. 1441–1451. - [36] W. Liu, P. Zhou, Z. Zhao, Z. Wang, Q. Ju, H. Deng, and P. Wang, “K-BERT: enabling language representation with knowledge graph,” in AAAI, 2020, pp. 2901–2908. - [37] Y. Liu, Y. Wan, L. He, H. Peng, and P. S. Yu, “KG-BART: knowledge graph-augmented BART for generative commonsense reasoning,” in AAAI, 2021, pp. 6418–6425. - [38] B. Y. Lin, X. Chen, J. Chen, and X. Ren, “KagNet: Knowledge-aware graph networks for commonsense reasoning,” in EMNLP-IJCNLP, 2019, pp. 2829–2839. - [39] D. Dai, L. Dong, Y. Hao, Z. Sui, B. Chang, and F. Wei, “Knowledge neurons in pretrained transformers,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2104.08696, 2021. - [40] X. Wang, T. Gao, Z. Zhu, Z. Zhang, Z. Liu, J. Li, and J. Tang, “KEPLER: A unified model for knowledge embedding and pre-trained language representation,” Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, vol. 9, pp. 176–194, 2021. - [41] I. Melnyk, P. Dognin, and P. Das, “Grapher: Multi-stage knowledge graph construction using pretrained language models,” in NeurIPS 2021 Workshop on Deep Generative Models and Downstream Applications, 2021. - [42] P. Ke, H. Ji, Y. Ran, X. Cui, L. Wang, L. Song, X. Zhu, and M. Huang, “JointGT: Graph-text joint representation learning for text generation from knowledge graphs,” in ACL Finding, 2021, pp. 2526–2538. - [43] J. Jiang, K. Zhou, W. X. Zhao, and J.-R. Wen, “Unikgqa: Unified retrieval and reasoning for solving multi-hop question answering over knowledge graph,” ICLR 2023, 2023. - [44] M. Yasunaga, A. Bosselut, H. Ren, X. Zhang, C. D. Manning, P. S. Liang, and J. Leskovec, “Deep bidirectional language-knowledge graph pretraining,” NeurIPS, vol. 35, pp. 37 309–37 323, 2022. - [45] N. Choudhary and C. K. Reddy, “Complex logical reasoning over knowledge graphs using large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.01157, 2023. - [46] S. Wang, Z. Wei, J. Xu, and Z. Fan, “Unifying structure reasoning and language model pre-training for complex reasoning,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2301.08913, 2023. - [47] C. Zhen, Y. Shang, X. Liu, Y. Li, Y. Chen, and D. Zhang, “A survey on knowledge-enhanced pre-trained language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2212.13428, 2022. - [48] X. Wei, S. Wang, D. Zhang, P. Bhatia, and A. Arnold, “Knowledge enhanced pretrained language models: A compreshensive survey,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.08455, 2021. - [49] D. Yin, L. Dong, H. Cheng, X. Liu, K.-W. Chang, F. Wei, and J. Gao, “A survey of knowledge-intensive nlp with pre-trained language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2202.08772, 2022. - [50] A. Vaswani, N. Shazeer, N. Parmar, J. Uszkoreit, L. Jones, A. N. Gomez, Ł. Kaiser, and I. Polosukhin, “Attention is all you need,” NeurIPS, vol. 30, 2017. - [51] Z. Lan, M. Chen, S. Goodman, K. Gimpel, P. Sharma, and R. Soricut, “Albert: A lite bert for self-supervised learning of language representations,” in ICLR, 2019. - [52] K. Clark, M.-T. Luong, Q. V. Le, and C. D. Manning, “Electra: Pre-training text encoders as discriminators rather than generators,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2003.10555, 2020. - [53] K. Hakala and S. Pyysalo, “Biomedical named entity recognition with multilingual bert,” in Proceedings of the 5th workshop on BioNLP open shared tasks, 2019, pp. 56–61. - [54] Y. Tay, M. Dehghani, V. Q. Tran, X. Garcia, J. Wei, X. Wang, H. W. Chung, D. Bahri, T. Schuster, S. Zheng et al., “Ul2: Unifying language learning paradigms,” in ICLR, 2022. - [55] V. Sanh, A. Webson, C. Raffel, S. Bach, L. Sutawika, Z. Alyafeai, A. Chaffin, A. Stiegler, A. Raja, M. Dey et al., “Multitask prompted training enables zero-shot task generalization,” in ICLR, 2022. - [56] B. Zoph, I. Bello, S. Kumar, N. Du, Y. Huang, J. Dean, N. Shazeer, and W. Fedus, “St-moe: Designing stable and transferable sparse expert models,” URL https://arxiv. org/abs/2202.08906, 2022. - [57] A. Zeng, X. Liu, Z. Du, Z. Wang, H. Lai, M. Ding, Z. Yang, Y. Xu, W. Zheng, X. Xia, W. L. Tam, Z. Ma, Y. Xue, J. Zhai, W. Chen, Z. Liu, P. Zhang, Y. Dong, and J. Tang, “GLM-130b: An open bilingual pre-trained model,” in ICLR, 2023. - [58] L. Xue, N. Constant, A. Roberts, M. Kale, R. Al-Rfou, A. Siddhant, A. Barua, and C. Raffel, “mt5: A massively multilingual pre-trained text-to-text transformer,” in NAACL, 2021, pp. 483–498. - [59] T. Brown, B. Mann, N. Ryder, M. Subbiah, J. D. Kaplan, P. Dhariwal, A. Neelakantan, P. Shyam, G. Sastry, A. Askell et al., “Language models are few-shot learners,” Advances in neural information processing systems, vol. 33, pp. 1877–1901, 2020. - [60] L. Ouyang, J. Wu, X. Jiang, D. Almeida, C. Wainwright, P. Mishkin, C. Zhang, S. Agarwal, K. Slama, A. Ray et al., “Training language models to follow instructions with human feedback,” NeurIPS, vol. 35, pp. 27 730–27 744, 2022. - [61] H. Touvron, T. Lavril, G. Izacard, X. Martinet, M.-A. Lachaux, T. Lacroix, B. Rozière, N. Goyal, E. Hambro, F. Azhar et al., “Llama: Open and efficient foundation language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2302.13971, 2023. - [62] E. Saravia, “Prompt Engineering Guide,” https://github.com/dair-ai/Prompt-Engineering-Guide, 2022, accessed: 2022-12. - [63] J. Wei, X. Wang, D. Schuurmans, M. Bosma, F. Xia, E. H. Chi, Q. V. Le, D. Zhou et al., “Chain-of-thought prompting elicits reasoning in large language models,” in NeurIPS. - [64] S. Li, Y. Gao, H. Jiang, Q. Yin, Z. Li, X. Yan, C. Zhang, and B. Yin, “Graph reasoning for question answering with triplet retrieval,” in ACL, 2023. - [65] Y. Wen, Z. Wang, and J. Sun, “Mindmap: Knowledge graph prompting sparks graph of thoughts in large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.09729, 2023. - [66] K. Bollacker, C. Evans, P. Paritosh, T. Sturge, and J. Taylor, “Freebase: A collaboratively created graph database for structuring human knowledge,” in SIGMOD, 2008, pp. 1247–1250. - [67] S. Auer, C. Bizer, G. Kobilarov, J. Lehmann, R. Cyganiak, and Z. Ives, “Dbpedia: A nucleus for a web of open data,” in The Semantic Web: 6th International Semantic Web Conference. Springer, 2007, pp. 722–735. - [68] B. Xu, Y. Xu, J. Liang, C. Xie, B. Liang, W. Cui, and Y. Xiao, “Cn-dbpedia: A never-ending chinese knowledge extraction system,” in 30th International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Other Applications of Applied Intelligent Systems. Springer, 2017, pp. 428–438. - [69] P. Hai-Nyzhnyk, “Vikidia as a universal multilingual online encyclopedia for children,” The Encyclopedia Herald of Ukraine, vol. 14, 2022. - [70] F. Ilievski, P. Szekely, and B. Zhang, “Cskg: The commonsense knowledge graph,” Extended Semantic Web Conference (ESWC), 2021. - [71] R. Speer, J. Chin, and C. Havasi, “Conceptnet 5.5: An open multilingual graph of general knowledge,” in Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence, vol. 31, no. 1, 2017. - [72] H. Ji, P. Ke, S. Huang, F. Wei, X. Zhu, and M. Huang, “Language generation with multi-hop reasoning on commonsense knowledge graph,” in EMNLP, 2020, pp. 725–736. - [73] J. D. Hwang, C. Bhagavatula, R. Le Bras, J. Da, K. Sakaguchi, A. Bosselut, and Y. Choi, “(comet-) atomic 2020: On symbolic and neural commonsense knowledge graphs,” in AAAI, vol. 35, no. 7, 2021, pp. 6384–6392. - [74] H. Zhang, X. Liu, H. Pan, Y. Song, and C. W.-K. Leung, “Aser: A large-scale eventuality knowledge graph,” in Proceedings of the web conference 2020, 2020, pp. 201–211. - [75] H. Zhang, D. Khashabi, Y. Song, and D. Roth, “Transomcs: from linguistic graphs to commonsense knowledge,” in IJCAI, 2021, pp. 4004–4010. - [76] Z. Li, X. Ding, T. Liu, J. E. Hu, and B. Van Durme, “Guided generation of cause and effect,” in IJCAI, 2020. - [77] O. Bodenreider, “The unified medical language system (umls): integrating biomedical terminology,” Nucleic acids research, vol. 32, no. suppl_1, pp. D267–D270, 2004. - [78] Y. Liu, Q. Zeng, J. Ordieres Meré, and H. Yang, “Anticipating stock market of the renowned companies: a knowledge graph approach,” Complexity, vol. 2019, 2019. - [79] Y. Zhu, W. Zhou, Y. Xu, J. Liu, Y. Tan et al., “Intelligent learning for knowledge graph towards geological data,” Scientific Programming, vol. 2017, 2017. - [80] W. Choi and H. Lee, “Inference of biomedical relations among chemicals, genes, diseases, and symptoms using knowledge representation learning,” IEEE Access, vol. 7, pp. 179 373–179 384, 2019. - [81] F. Farazi, M. Salamanca, S. Mosbach, J. Akroyd, A. Eibeck, L. K. Aditya, A. Chadzynski, K. Pan, X. Zhou, S. Zhang et al., “Knowledge graph approach to combustion chemistry and interoperability,” ACS omega, vol. 5, no. 29, pp. 18 342–18 348, 2020. - [82] X. Wu, T. Jiang, Y. Zhu, and C. Bu, “Knowledge graph for china’s genealogy,” IEEE TKDE, vol. 35, no. 1, pp. 634–646, 2023. - [83] X. Zhu, Z. Li, X. Wang, X. Jiang, P. Sun, X. Wang, Y. Xiao, and N. J. Yuan, “Multi-modal knowledge graph construction and application: A survey,” IEEE TKDE, 2022. - [84] S. Ferrada, B. Bustos, and A. Hogan, “Imgpedia: a linked dataset with content-based analysis of wikimedia images,” in The Semantic Web–ISWC 2017. Springer, 2017, pp. 84–93. - [85] Y. Liu, H. Li, A. Garcia-Duran, M. Niepert, D. Onoro-Rubio, and D. S. Rosenblum, “Mmkg: multi-modal knowledge graphs,” in The Semantic Web: 16th International Conference, ESWC 2019, Portorož, Slovenia, June 2–6, 2019, Proceedings 16. Springer, 2019, pp. 459–474. - [86] M. Wang, H. Wang, G. Qi, and Q. Zheng, “Richpedia: a large-scale, comprehensive multi-modal knowledge graph,” Big Data Research, vol. 22, p. 100159, 2020. - [87] B. Shi, L. Ji, P. Lu, Z. Niu, and N. Duan, “Knowledge aware semantic concept expansion for image-text matching.” in IJCAI, vol. 1, 2019, p. 2. - [88] S. Shah, A. Mishra, N. Yadati, and P. P. Talukdar, “Kvqa: Knowledge-aware visual question answering,” in AAAI, vol. 33, no. 01, 2019, pp. 8876–8884. - [89] R. Sun, X. Cao, Y. Zhao, J. Wan, K. Zhou, F. Zhang, Z. Wang, and K. Zheng, “Multi-modal knowledge graphs for recommender systems,” in CIKM, 2020, pp. 1405–1414. - [90] S. Deng, C. Wang, Z. Li, N. Zhang, Z. Dai, H. Chen, F. Xiong, M. Yan, Q. Chen, M. Chen, J. Chen, J. Z. Pan, B. Hooi, and H. Chen, “Construction and applications of billion-scale pre-trained multimodal business knowledge graph,” in ICDE, 2023. - [91] C. Rosset, C. Xiong, M. Phan, X. Song, P. Bennett, and S. Tiwary, “Knowledge-aware language model pretraining,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2007.00655, 2020. - [92] P. Lewis, E. Perez, A. Piktus, F. Petroni, V. Karpukhin, N. Goyal, H. Küttler, M. Lewis, W.-t. Yih, T. Rocktäschel, S. Riedel, and D. Kiela, “Retrieval-augmented generation for knowledge-intensive nlp tasks,” in NeurIPS, vol. 33, 2020, pp. 9459–9474. - [93] Y. Zhu, X. Wang, J. Chen, S. Qiao, Y. Ou, Y. Yao, S. Deng, H. Chen, and N. Zhang, “Llms for knowledge graph construction and reasoning: Recent capabilities and future opportunities,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.13168, 2023. - [94] Z. Zhang, X. Liu, Y. Zhang, Q. Su, X. Sun, and B. He, “Pretrain-kge: learning knowledge representation from pretrained language models,” in EMNLP Finding, 2020, pp. 259–266. - [95] A. Kumar, A. Pandey, R. Gadia, and M. Mishra, “Building knowledge graph using pre-trained language model for learning entity-aware relationships,” in 2020 IEEE International Conference on Computing, Power and Communication Technologies (GUCON). IEEE, 2020, pp. 310–315. - [96] X. Xie, N. Zhang, Z. Li, S. Deng, H. Chen, F. Xiong, M. Chen, and H. Chen, “From discrimination to generation: Knowledge graph completion with generative transformer,” in WWW, 2022, pp. 162–165. - [97] Z. Chen, C. Xu, F. Su, Z. Huang, and Y. Dou, “Incorporating structured sentences with time-enhanced bert for fully-inductive temporal relation prediction,” SIGIR, 2023. - [98] D. Zhu, J. Chen, X. Shen, X. Li, and M. Elhoseiny, “Minigpt-4: Enhancing vision-language understanding with advanced large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2304.10592, 2023. - [99] M. Warren, D. A. Shamma, and P. J. Hayes, “Knowledge engineering with image data in real-world settings,” in AAAI, ser. CEUR Workshop Proceedings, vol. 2846, 2021. - [100] R. Thoppilan, D. De Freitas, J. Hall, N. Shazeer, A. Kulshreshtha, H.-T. Cheng, A. Jin, T. Bos, L. Baker, Y. Du et al., “Lamda: Language models for dialog applications,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.08239, 2022. - [101] Y. Sun, S. Wang, S. Feng, S. Ding, C. Pang, J. Shang, J. Liu, X. Chen, Y. Zhao, Y. Lu et al., “Ernie 3.0: Large-scale knowledge enhanced pre-training for language understanding and generation,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2107.02137, 2021. - [102] T. Shen, Y. Mao, P. He, G. Long, A. Trischler, and W. Chen, “Exploiting structured knowledge in text via graph-guided representation learning,” in EMNLP, 2020, pp. 8980–8994. - [103] D. Zhang, Z. Yuan, Y. Liu, F. Zhuang, H. Chen, and H. Xiong, “E-bert: A phrase and product knowledge enhanced language model for e-commerce,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2009.02835, 2020. - [104] S. Li, X. Li, L. Shang, C. Sun, B. Liu, Z. Ji, X. Jiang, and Q. Liu, “Pre-training language models with deterministic factual knowledge,” in EMNLP, 2022, pp. 11 118–11 131. - [105] M. Kang, J. Baek, and S. J. Hwang, “Kala: Knowledge-augmented language model adaptation,” in NAACL, 2022, pp. 5144–5167. - [106] W. Xiong, J. Du, W. Y. Wang, and V. Stoyanov, “Pretrained encyclopedia: Weakly supervised knowledge-pretrained language model,” in ICLR, 2020. - [107] T. Sun, Y. Shao, X. Qiu, Q. Guo, Y. Hu, X. Huang, and Z. Zhang, “CoLAKE: Contextualized language and knowledge embedding,” in Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 2020, pp. 3660–3670. - [108] T. Zhang, C. Wang, N. Hu, M. Qiu, C. Tang, X. He, and J. Huang, “DKPLM: decomposable knowledge-enhanced pre-trained language model for natural language understanding,” in AAAI, 2022, pp. 11 703–11 711. - [109] J. Wang, W. Huang, M. Qiu, Q. Shi, H. Wang, X. Li, and M. Gao, “Knowledge prompting in pre-trained language model for natural language understanding,” in Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 2022, pp. 3164–3177. - [110] H. Ye, N. Zhang, S. Deng, X. Chen, H. Chen, F. Xiong, X. Chen, and H. Chen, “Ontology-enhanced prompt-tuning for few-shot learning,” in Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2022, 2022, pp. 778–787. - [111] H. Luo, Z. Tang, S. Peng, Y. Guo, W. Zhang, C. Ma, G. Dong, M. Song, W. Lin et al., “Chatkbqa: A generate-then-retrieve framework for knowledge base question answering with fine-tuned large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.08975, 2023. - [112] L. Luo, Y.-F. Li, G. Haffari, and S. Pan, “Reasoning on graphs: Faithful and interpretable large language model reasoning,” arXiv preprint arxiv:2310.01061, 2023. - [113] R. Logan, N. F. Liu, M. E. Peters, M. Gardner, and S. Singh, “Barack’s wife hillary: Using knowledge graphs for fact-aware language modeling,” in ACL, 2019, pp. 5962–5971. - [114] K. Guu, K. Lee, Z. Tung, P. Pasupat, and M.-W. Chang, “Realm: Retrieval-augmented language model pre-training,” in ICML, 2020. - [115] Y. Wu, Y. Zhao, B. Hu, P. Minervini, P. Stenetorp, and S. Riedel, “An efficient memory-augmented transformer for knowledge-intensive NLP tasks,” in EMNLP, 2022, pp. 5184–5196. - [116] L. Luo, J. Ju, B. Xiong, Y.-F. Li, G. Haffari, and S. Pan, “Chatrule: Mining logical rules with large language models for knowledge graph reasoning,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.01538, 2023. - [117] J. Wang, Q. Sun, N. Chen, X. Li, and M. Gao, “Boosting language models reasoning with chain-of-knowledge prompting,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2306.06427, 2023. - [118] Z. Jiang, F. F. Xu, J. Araki, and G. Neubig, “How can we know what language models know?” Transactions of the Association for Computational Linguistics, vol. 8, pp. 423–438, 2020. - [119] T. Shin, Y. Razeghi, R. L. Logan IV, E. Wallace, and S. Singh, “Autoprompt: Eliciting knowledge from language models with automatically generated prompts,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2010.15980, 2020. - [120] Z. Meng, F. Liu, E. Shareghi, Y. Su, C. Collins, and N. Collier, “Rewire-then-probe: A contrastive recipe for probing biomedical knowledge of pre-trained language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2110.08173, 2021. - [121] L. Luo, T.-T. Vu, D. Phung, and G. Haffari, “Systematic assessment of factual knowledge in large language models,” in EMNLP, 2023. - [122] V. Swamy, A. Romanou, and M. Jaggi, “Interpreting language models through knowledge graph extraction,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2111.08546, 2021. - [123] S. Li, X. Li, L. Shang, Z. Dong, C. Sun, B. Liu, Z. Ji, X. Jiang, and Q. Liu, “How pre-trained language models capture factual knowledge? a causal-inspired analysis,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2203.16747, 2022. - [124] H. Tian, C. Gao, X. Xiao, H. Liu, B. He, H. Wu, H. Wang, and F. Wu, “SKEP: Sentiment knowledge enhanced pre-training for sentiment analysis,” in ACL, 2020, pp. 4067–4076. - [125] W. Yu, C. Zhu, Y. Fang, D. Yu, S. Wang, Y. Xu, M. Zeng, and M. Jiang, “Dict-BERT: Enhancing language model pre-training with dictionary,” in ACL, 2022, pp. 1907–1918. - [126] T. McCoy, E. Pavlick, and T. Linzen, “Right for the wrong reasons: Diagnosing syntactic heuristics in natural language inference,” in ACL, 2019, pp. 3428–3448. - [127] D. Wilmot and F. Keller, “Memory and knowledge augmented language models for inferring salience in long-form stories,” in EMNLP, 2021, pp. 851–865. - [128] L. Adolphs, S. Dhuliawala, and T. Hofmann, “How to query language models?” arXiv preprint arXiv:2108.01928, 2021. - [129] M. Sung, J. Lee, S. Yi, M. Jeon, S. Kim, and J. Kang, “Can language models be biomedical knowledge bases?” in EMNLP, 2021, pp. 4723–4734. - [130] A. Mallen, A. Asai, V. Zhong, R. Das, H. Hajishirzi, and D. Khashabi, “When not to trust language models: Investigating effectiveness and limitations of parametric and non-parametric memories,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2212.10511, 2022. - [131] M. Yasunaga, H. Ren, A. Bosselut, P. Liang, and J. Leskovec, “QA-GNN: Reasoning with language models and knowledge graphs for question answering,” in NAACL, 2021, pp. 535–546. - [132] M. Nayyeri, Z. Wang, M. Akter, M. M. Alam, M. R. A. H. Rony, J. Lehmann, S. Staab et al., “Integrating knowledge graph embedding and pretrained language models in hypercomplex spaces,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2208.02743, 2022. - [133] N. Huang, Y. R. Deshpande, Y. Liu, H. Alberts, K. Cho, C. Vania, and I. Calixto, “Endowing language models with multimodal knowledge graph representations,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.13163, 2022. - [134] M. M. Alam, M. R. A. H. Rony, M. Nayyeri, K. Mohiuddin, M. M. Akter, S. Vahdati, and J. Lehmann, “Language model guided knowledge graph embeddings,” IEEE Access, vol. 10, pp. 76 008–76 020, 2022. - [135] X. Wang, Q. He, J. Liang, and Y. Xiao, “Language models as knowledge embeddings,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.12617, 2022. - [136] N. Zhang, X. Xie, X. Chen, S. Deng, C. Tan, F. Huang, X. Cheng, and H. Chen, “Reasoning through memorization: Nearest neighbor knowledge graph embeddings,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.05575, 2022. - [137] X. Xie, Z. Li, X. Wang, Y. Zhu, N. Zhang, J. Zhang, S. Cheng, B. Tian, S. Deng, F. Xiong, and H. Chen, “Lambdakg: A library for pre-trained language model-based knowledge graph embeddings,” 2022. - [138] B. Kim, T. Hong, Y. Ko, and J. Seo, “Multi-task learning for knowledge graph completion with pre-trained language models,” in COLING, 2020, pp. 1737–1743. - [139] X. Lv, Y. Lin, Y. Cao, L. Hou, J. Li, Z. Liu, P. Li, and J. Zhou, “Do pre-trained models benefit knowledge graph completion? A reliable evaluation and a reasonable approach,” in ACL, 2022, pp. 3570–3581. - [140] J. Shen, C. Wang, L. Gong, and D. Song, “Joint language semantic and structure embedding for knowledge graph completion,” in COLING, 2022, pp. 1965–1978. - [141] B. Choi, D. Jang, and Y. Ko, “MEM-KGC: masked entity model for knowledge graph completion with pre-trained language model,” IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 132 025–132 032, 2021. - [142] B. Choi and Y. Ko, “Knowledge graph extension with a pre-trained language model via unified learning method,” Knowl. Based Syst., vol. 262, p. 110245, 2023. - [143] B. Wang, T. Shen, G. Long, T. Zhou, Y. Wang, and Y. Chang, “Structure-augmented text representation learning for efficient knowledge graph completion,” in WWW, 2021, pp. 1737–1748. - [144] L. Wang, W. Zhao, Z. Wei, and J. Liu, “Simkgc: Simple contrastive knowledge graph completion with pre-trained language models,” in ACL, 2022, pp. 4281–4294. - [145] D. Li, M. Yi, and Y. He, “Lp-bert: Multi-task pre-training knowledge graph bert for link prediction,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.04843, 2022. - [146] A. Saxena, A. Kochsiek, and R. Gemulla, “Sequence-to-sequence knowledge graph completion and question answering,” in ACL, 2022, pp. 2814–2828. - [147] C. Chen, Y. Wang, B. Li, and K. Lam, “Knowledge is flat: A seq2seq generative framework for various knowledge graph completion,” in COLING, 2022, pp. 4005–4017. - [148] M. E. Peters, M. Neumann, M. Iyyer, M. Gardner, C. Clark, K. Lee, and L. Zettlemoyer, “Deep contextualized word representations,” in NAACL, 2018, pp. 2227–2237. - [149] H. Yan, T. Gui, J. Dai, Q. Guo, Z. Zhang, and X. Qiu, “A unified generative framework for various NER subtasks,” in ACL, 2021, pp. 5808–5822. - [150] Y. Onoe and G. Durrett, “Learning to denoise distantly-labeled data for entity typing,” in NAACL, 2019, pp. 2407–2417. - [151] Y. Onoe, M. Boratko, A. McCallum, and G. Durrett, “Modeling fine-grained entity types with box embeddings,” in ACL, 2021, pp. 2051–2064. - [152] B. Z. Li, S. Min, S. Iyer, Y. Mehdad, and W. Yih, “Efficient one-pass end-to-end entity linking for questions,” in EMNLP, 2020, pp. 6433–6441. - [153] T. Ayoola, S. Tyagi, J. Fisher, C. Christodoulopoulos, and A. Pierleoni, “Refined: An efficient zero-shot-capable approach to end-to-end entity linking,” in NAACL, 2022, pp. 209–220. - [154] M. Joshi, O. Levy, L. Zettlemoyer, and D. S. Weld, “BERT for coreference resolution: Baselines and analysis,” in EMNLP, 2019, pp. 5802–5807. - [155] M. Joshi, D. Chen, Y. Liu, D. S. Weld, L. Zettlemoyer, and O. Levy, “Spanbert: Improving pre-training by representing and predicting spans,” Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguistics, vol. 8, pp. 64–77, 2020. - [156] A. Caciularu, A. Cohan, I. Beltagy, M. E. Peters, A. Cattan, and I. Dagan, “CDLM: cross-document language modeling,” in EMNLP, 2021, pp. 2648–2662. - [157] A. Cattan, A. Eirew, G. Stanovsky, M. Joshi, and I. Dagan, “Cross-document coreference resolution over predicted mentions,” in ACL, 2021, pp. 5100–5107. - [158] Y. Wang, Y. Shen, and H. Jin, “An end-to-end actor-critic-based neural coreference resolution system,” in IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, ICASSP 2021, Toronto, ON, Canada, June 6-11, 2021, 2021, pp. 7848–7852. - [159] P. Shi and J. Lin, “Simple BERT models for relation extraction and semantic role labeling,” CoRR, vol. abs/1904.05255, 2019. - [160] S. Park and H. Kim, “Improving sentence-level relation extraction through curriculum learning,” CoRR, vol. abs/2107.09332, 2021. - [161] Y. Ma, A. Wang, and N. Okazaki, “DREEAM: guiding attention with evidence for improving document-level relation extraction,” in EACL, 2023, pp. 1963–1975. - [162] Q. Guo, Y. Sun, G. Liu, Z. Wang, Z. Ji, Y. Shen, and X. Wang, “Constructing chinese historical literature knowledge graph based on bert,” in Web Information Systems and Applications: 18th International Conference, WISA 2021, Kaifeng, China, September 24–26, 2021, Proceedings 18. Springer, 2021, pp. 323–334. - [163] J. Han, N. Collier, W. Buntine, and E. Shareghi, “Pive: Prompting with iterative verification improving graph-based generative capability of llms,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.12392, 2023. - [164] A. Bosselut, H. Rashkin, M. Sap, C. Malaviya, A. Celikyilmaz, and Y. Choi, “Comet: Commonsense transformers for knowledge graph construction,” in ACL, 2019. - [165] S. Hao, B. Tan, K. Tang, H. Zhang, E. P. Xing, and Z. Hu, “Bertnet: Harvesting knowledge graphs from pretrained language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2206.14268, 2022. - [166] P. West, C. Bhagavatula, J. Hessel, J. Hwang, L. Jiang, R. Le Bras, X. Lu, S. Welleck, and Y. Choi, “Symbolic knowledge distillation: from general language models to commonsense models,” in NAACL, 2022, pp. 4602–4625. - [167] L. F. R. Ribeiro, M. Schmitt, H. Schütze, and I. Gurevych, “Investigating pretrained language models for graph-to-text generation,” in Proceedings of the 3rd Workshop on Natural Language Processing for Conversational AI, 2021, pp. 211–227. - [168] J. Li, T. Tang, W. X. Zhao, Z. Wei, N. J. Yuan, and J.-R. Wen, “Few-shot knowledge graph-to-text generation with pretrained language models,” in ACL, 2021, pp. 1558–1568. - [169] A. Colas, M. Alvandipour, and D. Z. Wang, “GAP: A graph-aware language model framework for knowledge graph-to-text generation,” in Proceedings of the 29th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 2022, pp. 5755–5769. - [170] Z. Jin, Q. Guo, X. Qiu, and Z. Zhang, “GenWiki: A dataset of 1.3 million content-sharing text and graphs for unsupervised graph-to-text generation,” in Proceedings of the 28th International Conference on Computational Linguistics, 2020, pp. 2398–2409. - [171] W. Chen, Y. Su, X. Yan, and W. Y. Wang, “KGPT: Knowledge-grounded pre-training for data-to-text generation,” in EMNLP, 2020, pp. 8635–8648. - [172] D. Lukovnikov, A. Fischer, and J. Lehmann, “Pretrained transformers for simple question answering over knowledge graphs,” in The Semantic Web–ISWC 2019: 18th International Semantic Web Conference, Auckland, New Zealand, October 26–30, 2019, Proceedings, Part I 18. Springer, 2019, pp. 470–486. - [173] D. Luo, J. Su, and S. Yu, “A bert-based approach with relation-aware attention for knowledge base question answering,” in IJCNN. IEEE, 2020, pp. 1–8. - [174] N. Hu, Y. Wu, G. Qi, D. Min, J. Chen, J. Z. Pan, and Z. Ali, “An empirical study of pre-trained language models in simple knowledge graph question answering,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2303.10368, 2023. - [175] Y. Xu, C. Zhu, R. Xu, Y. Liu, M. Zeng, and X. Huang, “Fusing context into knowledge graph for commonsense question answering,” in ACL, 2021, pp. 1201–1207. - [176] M. Zhang, R. Dai, M. Dong, and T. He, “Drlk: Dynamic hierarchical reasoning with language model and knowledge graph for question answering,” in EMNLP, 2022, pp. 5123–5133. - [177] Z. Hu, Y. Xu, W. Yu, S. Wang, Z. Yang, C. Zhu, K.-W. Chang, and Y. Sun, “Empowering language models with knowledge graph reasoning for open-domain question answering,” in EMNLP, 2022, pp. 9562–9581. - [178] X. Zhang, A. Bosselut, M. Yasunaga, H. Ren, P. Liang, C. D. Manning, and J. Leskovec, “Greaselm: Graph reasoning enhanced language models,” in ICLR, 2022. - [179] X. Cao and Y. Liu, “Relmkg: reasoning with pre-trained language models and knowledge graphs for complex question answering,” Applied Intelligence, pp. 1–15, 2022. - [180] X. Huang, J. Zhang, D. Li, and P. Li, “Knowledge graph embedding based question answering,” in WSDM, 2019, pp. 105–113. - [181] H. Wang, F. Zhang, X. Xie, and M. Guo, “Dkn: Deep knowledge-aware network for news recommendation,” in WWW, 2018, pp. 1835–1844. - [182] B. Yang, S. W.-t. Yih, X. He, J. Gao, and L. Deng, “Embedding entities and relations for learning and inference in knowledge bases,” in ICLR, 2015. - [183] W. Xiong, M. Yu, S. Chang, X. Guo, and W. Y. Wang, “One-shot relational learning for knowledge graphs,” in EMNLP, 2018, pp. 1980–1990. - [184] P. Wang, J. Han, C. Li, and R. Pan, “Logic attention based neighborhood aggregation for inductive knowledge graph embedding,” in AAAI, vol. 33, no. 01, 2019, pp. 7152–7159. - [185] Y. Lin, Z. Liu, M. Sun, Y. Liu, and X. Zhu, “Learning entity and relation embeddings for knowledge graph completion,” in Proceedings of the AAAI conference on artificial intelligence, vol. 29, no. 1, 2015. - [186] C. Chen, Y. Wang, A. Sun, B. Li, and L. Kwok-Yan, “Dipping plms sauce: Bridging structure and text for effective knowledge graph completion via conditional soft prompting,” in ACL, 2023. - [187] J. Lovelace and C. P. Rosé, “A framework for adapting pre-trained language models to knowledge graph completion,” in Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, EMNLP 2022, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, December 7-11, 2022, 2022, pp. 5937–5955. - [188] J. Fu, L. Feng, Q. Zhang, X. Huang, and P. Liu, “Larger-context tagging: When and why does it work?” in Proceedings of the 2021 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, NAACL-HLT 2021, Online, June 6-11, 2021, 2021, pp. 1463–1475. - [189] X. Liu, K. Ji, Y. Fu, Z. Du, Z. Yang, and J. Tang, “P-tuning v2: Prompt tuning can be comparable to fine-tuning universally across scales and tasks,” CoRR, vol. abs/2110.07602, 2021. - [190] J. Yu, B. Bohnet, and M. Poesio, “Named entity recognition as dependency parsing,” in ACL, 2020, pp. 6470–6476. - [191] F. Li, Z. Lin, M. Zhang, and D. Ji, “A span-based model for joint overlapped and discontinuous named entity recognition,” in ACL, 2021, pp. 4814–4828. - [192] C. Tan, W. Qiu, M. Chen, R. Wang, and F. Huang, “Boundary enhanced neural span classification for nested named entity recognition,” in The Thirty-Fourth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI 2020, The Thirty-Second Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence Conference, IAAI 2020, The Tenth AAAI Symposium on Educational Advances in Artificial Intelligence, EAAI 2020, New York, NY, USA, February 7-12, 2020, 2020, pp. 9016–9023. - [193] Y. Xu, H. Huang, C. Feng, and Y. Hu, “A supervised multi-head self-attention network for nested named entity recognition,” in Thirty-Fifth AAAI Conference on Artificial Intelligence, AAAI 2021, Thirty-Third Conference on Innovative Applications of Artificial Intelligence, IAAI 2021, The Eleventh Symposium on Educational Advances in Artificial Intelligence, EAAI 2021, Virtual Event, February 2-9, 2021, 2021, pp. 14 185–14 193. - [194] J. Yu, B. Ji, S. Li, J. Ma, H. Liu, and H. Xu, “S-NER: A concise and efficient span-based model for named entity recognition,” Sensors, vol. 22, no. 8, p. 2852, 2022. - [195] Y. Fu, C. Tan, M. Chen, S. Huang, and F. Huang, “Nested named entity recognition with partially-observed treecrfs,” in AAAI, 2021, pp. 12 839–12 847. - [196] C. Lou, S. Yang, and K. Tu, “Nested named entity recognition as latent lexicalized constituency parsing,” in Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), ACL 2022, Dublin, Ireland, May 22-27, 2022, 2022, pp. 6183–6198. - [197] S. Yang and K. Tu, “Bottom-up constituency parsing and nested named entity recognition with pointer networks,” in Proceedings of the 60th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics (Volume 1: Long Papers), ACL 2022, Dublin, Ireland, May 22-27, 2022, 2022, pp. 2403–2416. - [198] F. Li, Z. Lin, M. Zhang, and D. Ji, “A span-based model for joint overlapped and discontinuous named entity recognition,” in Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, ACL/IJCNLP 2021, (Volume 1: Long Papers), Virtual Event, August 1-6, 2021, 2021, pp. 4814–4828. - [199] Q. Liu, H. Lin, X. Xiao, X. Han, L. Sun, and H. Wu, “Fine-grained entity typing via label reasoning,” in Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, EMNLP 2021, Virtual Event / Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, 7-11 November, 2021, 2021, pp. 4611–4622. - [200] H. Dai, Y. Song, and H. Wang, “Ultra-fine entity typing with weak supervision from a masked language model,” in Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, ACL/IJCNLP 2021, (Volume 1: Long Papers), Virtual Event, August 1-6, 2021, 2021, pp. 1790–1799. - [201] N. Ding, Y. Chen, X. Han, G. Xu, X. Wang, P. Xie, H. Zheng, Z. Liu, J. Li, and H. Kim, “Prompt-learning for fine-grained entity typing,” in Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: EMNLP 2022, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, December 7-11, 2022, 2022, pp. 6888–6901. - [202] W. Pan, W. Wei, and F. Zhu, “Automatic noisy label correction for fine-grained entity typing,” in Proceedings of the Thirty-First International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, IJCAI 2022, Vienna, Austria, 23-29 July 2022, 2022, pp. 4317–4323. - [203] B. Li, W. Yin, and M. Chen, “Ultra-fine entity typing with indirect supervision from natural language inference,” Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguistics, vol. 10, pp. 607–622, 2022. - [204] S. Broscheit, “Investigating entity knowledge in BERT with simple neural end-to-end entity linking,” CoRR, vol. abs/2003.05473, 2020. - [205] N. D. Cao, G. Izacard, S. Riedel, and F. Petroni, “Autoregressive entity retrieval,” in 9th ICLR, ICLR 2021, Virtual Event, Austria, May 3-7, 2021, 2021. - [206] N. D. Cao, L. Wu, K. Popat, M. Artetxe, N. Goyal, M. Plekhanov, L. Zettlemoyer, N. Cancedda, S. Riedel, and F. Petroni, “Multilingual autoregressive entity linking,” Trans. Assoc. Comput. Linguistics, vol. 10, pp. 274–290, 2022. - [207] N. D. Cao, W. Aziz, and I. Titov, “Highly parallel autoregressive entity linking with discriminative correction,” in Proceedings of the 2021 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, EMNLP 2021, Virtual Event / Punta Cana, Dominican Republic, 7-11 November, 2021, 2021, pp. 7662–7669. - [208] K. Lee, L. He, and L. Zettlemoyer, “Higher-order coreference resolution with coarse-to-fine inference,” in NAACL, 2018, pp. 687–692. - [209] T. M. Lai, T. Bui, and D. S. Kim, “End-to-end neural coreference resolution revisited: A simple yet effective baseline,” in IEEE International Conference on Acoustics, Speech and Signal Processing, ICASSP 2022, Virtual and Singapore, 23-27 May 2022, 2022, pp. 8147–8151. - [210] W. Wu, F. Wang, A. Yuan, F. Wu, and J. Li, “Corefqa: Coreference resolution as query-based span prediction,” in Proceedings of the 58th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics, ACL 2020, Online, July 5-10, 2020, 2020, pp. 6953–6963. - [211] T. M. Lai, H. Ji, T. Bui, Q. H. Tran, F. Dernoncourt, and W. Chang, “A context-dependent gated module for incorporating symbolic semantics into event coreference resolution,” in Proceedings of the 2021 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, NAACL-HLT 2021, Online, June 6-11, 2021, 2021, pp. 3491–3499. - [212] Y. Kirstain, O. Ram, and O. Levy, “Coreference resolution without span representations,” in Proceedings of the 59th Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics and the 11th International Joint Conference on Natural Language Processing, ACL/IJCNLP 2021, (Volume 2: Short Papers), Virtual Event, August 1-6, 2021, 2021, pp. 14–19. - [213] R. Thirukovalluru, N. Monath, K. Shridhar, M. Zaheer, M. Sachan, and A. McCallum, “Scaling within document coreference to long texts,” in Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL/IJCNLP 2021, Online Event, August 1-6, 2021, ser. Findings of ACL, vol. ACL/IJCNLP 2021, 2021, pp. 3921–3931. - [214] I. Beltagy, M. E. Peters, and A. Cohan, “Longformer: The long-document transformer,” CoRR, vol. abs/2004.05150, 2020. - [215] C. Alt, M. Hübner, and L. Hennig, “Improving relation extraction by pre-trained language representations,” in 1st Conference on Automated Knowledge Base Construction, AKBC 2019, Amherst, MA, USA, May 20-22, 2019, 2019. - [216] L. B. Soares, N. FitzGerald, J. Ling, and T. Kwiatkowski, “Matching the blanks: Distributional similarity for relation learning,” in ACL, 2019, pp. 2895–2905. - [217] S. Lyu and H. Chen, “Relation classification with entity type restriction,” in Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL/IJCNLP 2021, Online Event, August 1-6, 2021, ser. Findings of ACL, vol. ACL/IJCNLP 2021, 2021, pp. 390–395. - [218] J. Zheng and Z. Chen, “Sentence-level relation extraction via contrastive learning with descriptive relation prompts,” CoRR, vol. abs/2304.04935, 2023. - [219] H. Wang, C. Focke, R. Sylvester, N. Mishra, and W. Y. Wang, “Fine-tune bert for docred with two-step process,” CoRR, vol. abs/1909.11898, 2019. - [220] H. Tang, Y. Cao, Z. Zhang, J. Cao, F. Fang, S. Wang, and P. Yin, “HIN: hierarchical inference network for document-level relation extraction,” in PAKDD, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 12084, 2020, pp. 197–209. - [221] D. Wang, W. Hu, E. Cao, and W. Sun, “Global-to-local neural networks for document-level relation extraction,” in Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, EMNLP 2020, Online, November 16-20, 2020, 2020, pp. 3711–3721. - [222] S. Zeng, Y. Wu, and B. Chang, “SIRE: separate intra- and inter-sentential reasoning for document-level relation extraction,” in Findings of the Association for Computational Linguistics: ACL/IJCNLP 2021, Online Event, August 1-6, 2021, ser. Findings of ACL, vol. ACL/IJCNLP 2021, 2021, pp. 524–534. - [223] G. Nan, Z. Guo, I. Sekulic, and W. Lu, “Reasoning with latent structure refinement for document-level relation extraction,” in ACL, 2020, pp. 1546–1557. - [224] S. Zeng, R. Xu, B. Chang, and L. Li, “Double graph based reasoning for document-level relation extraction,” in Proceedings of the 2020 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, EMNLP 2020, Online, November 16-20, 2020, 2020, pp. 1630–1640. - [225] N. Zhang, X. Chen, X. Xie, S. Deng, C. Tan, M. Chen, F. Huang, L. Si, and H. Chen, “Document-level relation extraction as semantic segmentation,” in IJCAI, 2021, pp. 3999–4006. - [226] O. Ronneberger, P. Fischer, and T. Brox, “U-net: Convolutional networks for biomedical image segmentation,” in Medical Image Computing and Computer-Assisted Intervention - MICCAI 2015 - 18th International Conference Munich, Germany, October 5 - 9, 2015, Proceedings, Part III, ser. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, vol. 9351, 2015, pp. 234–241. - [227] W. Zhou, K. Huang, T. Ma, and J. Huang, “Document-level relation extraction with adaptive thresholding and localized context pooling,” in AAAI, 2021, pp. 14 612–14 620. - [228] C. Gardent, A. Shimorina, S. Narayan, and L. Perez-Beltrachini, “The WebNLG challenge: Generating text from RDF data,” in Proceedings of the 10th International Conference on Natural Language Generation, 2017, pp. 124–133. - [229] J. Guan, Y. Wang, and M. Huang, “Story ending generation with incremental encoding and commonsense knowledge,” in AAAI, 2019, pp. 6473–6480. - [230] H. Zhou, T. Young, M. Huang, H. Zhao, J. Xu, and X. Zhu, “Commonsense knowledge aware conversation generation with graph attention,” in IJCAI, 2018, pp. 4623–4629. - [231] M. Kale and A. Rastogi, “Text-to-text pre-training for data-to-text tasks,” in Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Natural Language Generation, 2020, pp. 97–102. - [232] M. Mintz, S. Bills, R. Snow, and D. Jurafsky, “Distant supervision for relation extraction without labeled data,” in ACL, 2009, pp. 1003–1011. - [233] A. Saxena, A. Tripathi, and P. Talukdar, “Improving multi-hop question answering over knowledge graphs using knowledge base embeddings,” in ACL, 2020, pp. 4498–4507. - [234] Y. Feng, X. Chen, B. Y. Lin, P. Wang, J. Yan, and X. Ren, “Scalable multi-hop relational reasoning for knowledge-aware question answering,” in EMNLP, 2020, pp. 1295–1309. - [235] Y. Yan, R. Li, S. Wang, H. Zhang, Z. Daoguang, F. Zhang, W. Wu, and W. Xu, “Large-scale relation learning for question answering over knowledge bases with pre-trained language models,” in EMNLP, 2021, pp. 3653–3660. - [236] J. Zhang, X. Zhang, J. Yu, J. Tang, J. Tang, C. Li, and H. Chen, “Subgraph retrieval enhanced model for multi-hop knowledge base question answering,” in ACL (Volume 1: Long Papers), 2022, pp. 5773–5784. - [237] J. Jiang, K. Zhou, Z. Dong, K. Ye, W. X. Zhao, and J.-R. Wen, “Structgpt: A general framework for large language model to reason over structured data,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.09645, 2023. - [238] H. Zhu, H. Peng, Z. Lyu, L. Hou, J. Li, and J. Xiao, “Pre-training language model incorporating domain-specific heterogeneous knowledge into a unified representation,” Expert Systems with Applications, vol. 215, p. 119369, 2023. - [239] C. Feng, X. Zhang, and Z. Fei, “Knowledge solver: Teaching llms to search for domain knowledge from knowledge graphs,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.03118, 2023. - [240] J. Sun, C. Xu, L. Tang, S. Wang, C. Lin, Y. Gong, H.-Y. Shum, and J. Guo, “Think-on-graph: Deep and responsible reasoning of large language model with knowledge graph,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.07697, 2023. - [241] B. He, D. Zhou, J. Xiao, X. Jiang, Q. Liu, N. J. Yuan, and T. Xu, “BERT-MK: Integrating graph contextualized knowledge into pre-trained language models,” in EMNLP, 2020, pp. 2281–2290. - [242] Y. Su, X. Han, Z. Zhang, Y. Lin, P. Li, Z. Liu, J. Zhou, and M. Sun, “Cokebert: Contextual knowledge selection and embedding towards enhanced pre-trained language models,” AI Open, vol. 2, pp. 127–134, 2021. - [243] D. Yu, C. Zhu, Y. Yang, and M. Zeng, “JAKET: joint pre-training of knowledge graph and language understanding,” in AAAI, 2022, pp. 11 630–11 638. - [244] X. Wang, P. Kapanipathi, R. Musa, M. Yu, K. Talamadupula, I. Abdelaziz, M. Chang, A. Fokoue, B. Makni, N. Mattei, and M. Witbrock, “Improving natural language inference using external knowledge in the science questions domain,” in AAAI, 2019, pp. 7208–7215. - [245] Y. Sun, Q. Shi, L. Qi, and Y. Zhang, “JointLK: Joint reasoning with language models and knowledge graphs for commonsense question answering,” in NAACL, 2022, pp. 5049–5060. - [246] X. Liu, H. Yu, H. Zhang, Y. Xu, X. Lei, H. Lai, Y. Gu, H. Ding, K. Men, K. Yang et al., “Agentbench: Evaluating llms as agents,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.03688, 2023. - [247] Y. Wang, N. Lipka, R. A. Rossi, A. Siu, R. Zhang, and T. Derr, “Knowledge graph prompting for multi-document question answering,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2308.11730, 2023. - [248] A. Zeng, M. Liu, R. Lu, B. Wang, X. Liu, Y. Dong, and J. Tang, “Agenttuning: Enabling generalized agent abilities for llms,” 2023. - [249] W. Kryściński, B. McCann, C. Xiong, and R. Socher, “Evaluating the factual consistency of abstractive text summarization,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1910.12840, 2019. - [250] Z. Ji, Z. Liu, N. Lee, T. Yu, B. Wilie, M. Zeng, and P. Fung, “Rho ( $\backslash\rho$ ): Reducing hallucination in open-domain dialogues with knowledge grounding,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2212.01588, 2022. - [251] S. Feng, V. Balachandran, Y. Bai, and Y. Tsvetkov, “Factkb: Generalizable factuality evaluation using language models enhanced with factual knowledge,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.08281, 2023. - [252] Y. Yao, P. Wang, B. Tian, S. Cheng, Z. Li, S. Deng, H. Chen, and N. Zhang, “Editing large language models: Problems, methods, and opportunities,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2305.13172, 2023. - [253] Z. Li, N. Zhang, Y. Yao, M. Wang, X. Chen, and H. Chen, “Unveiling the pitfalls of knowledge editing for large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.02129, 2023. - [254] R. Cohen, E. Biran, O. Yoran, A. Globerson, and M. Geva, “Evaluating the ripple effects of knowledge editing in language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2307.12976, 2023. - [255] S. Diao, Z. Huang, R. Xu, X. Li, Y. Lin, X. Zhou, and T. Zhang, “Black-box prompt learning for pre-trained language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2201.08531, 2022. - [256] T. Sun, Y. Shao, H. Qian, X. Huang, and X. Qiu, “Black-box tuning for language-model-as-a-service,” in International Conference on Machine Learning. PMLR, 2022, pp. 20 841–20 855. - [257] X. Chen, A. Shrivastava, and A. Gupta, “NEIL: extracting visual knowledge from web data,” in IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, ICCV 2013, Sydney, Australia, December 1-8, 2013, 2013, pp. 1409–1416. - [258] M. Warren and P. J. Hayes, “Bounding ambiguity: Experiences with an image annotation system,” in Proceedings of the 1st Workshop on Subjectivity, Ambiguity and Disagreement in Crowdsourcing, ser. CEUR Workshop Proceedings, vol. 2276, 2018, pp. 41–54. - [259] Z. Chen, Y. Huang, J. Chen, Y. Geng, Y. Fang, J. Z. Pan, N. Zhang, and W. Zhang, “Lako: Knowledge-driven visual estion answering via late knowledge-to-text injection,” 2022. - [260] R. Girdhar, A. El-Nouby, Z. Liu, M. Singh, K. V. Alwala, A. Joulin, and I. Misra, “Imagebind: One embedding space to bind them all,” in ICCV, 2023, pp. 15 180–15 190. - [261] J. Zhang, Z. Yin, P. Chen, and S. Nichele, “Emotion recognition using multi-modal data and machine learning techniques: A tutorial and review,” Information Fusion, vol. 59, pp. 103–126, 2020. - [262] H. Zhang, B. Wu, X. Yuan, S. Pan, H. Tong, and J. Pei, “Trustworthy graph neural networks: Aspects, methods and trends,” arXiv:2205.07424, 2022. - [263] T. Wu, M. Caccia, Z. Li, Y.-F. Li, G. Qi, and G. Haffari, “Pretrained language model in continual learning: A comparative study,” in ICLR, 2022. - [264] X. L. Li, A. Kuncoro, J. Hoffmann, C. de Masson d’Autume, P. Blunsom, and A. Nematzadeh, “A systematic investigation of commonsense knowledge in large language models,” in Proceedings of the 2022 Conference on Empirical Methods in Natural Language Processing, 2022, pp. 11 838–11 855. - [265] Y. Zheng, H. Y. Koh, J. Ju, A. T. Nguyen, L. T. May, G. I. Webb, and S. Pan, “Large language models for scientific synthesis, inference and explanation,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2310.07984, 2023. - [266] B. Min, H. Ross, E. Sulem, A. P. B. Veyseh, T. H. Nguyen, O. Sainz, E. Agirre, I. Heintz, and D. Roth, “Recent advances in natural language processing via large pre-trained language models: A survey,” ACM Computing Surveys, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 1–40, 2023. - [267] J. Wei, M. Bosma, V. Zhao, K. Guu, A. W. Yu, B. Lester, N. Du, A. M. Dai, and Q. V. Le, “Finetuned language models are zero-shot learners,” in International Conference on Learning Representations, 2021. - [268] Y. Zhang, Y. Li, L. Cui, D. Cai, L. Liu, T. Fu, X. Huang, E. Zhao, Y. Zhang, Y. Chen, L. Wang, A. T. Luu, W. Bi, F. Shi, and S. Shi, “Siren’s song in the ai ocean: A survey on hallucination in large language models,” arXiv preprint arXiv:2309.01219, 2023. Appendix A Pros and Cons for LLMs and KGs In this section, we introduce the pros and cons of LLMs and KGs in detail. We summarize the pros and cons of LLMs and KGs in Fig. 1, respectively. LLM pros. - General Knowledge [11]: LLMs pre-trained on large-scale corpora, which contain a large amount of general knowledge, such as commonsense knowledge [264] and factual knowledge [14]. Such knowledge can be distilled from LLMs and used for downstream tasks [265]. - Language Processing [12]: LLMs have shown great performance in understanding natural language [266]. Therefore, LLMs can be used in many natural language processing tasks, such as question answering [4], machine translation [5], and text generation [6]. - Generalizability [13]: LLMs enable great generalizability, which can be applied to various downstream tasks [267]. By providing few-shot examples [59] or finetuning on multi-task data [3], LLMs achieve great performance on many tasks. LLM cons. - Implicit Knowledge [14]: LLMs represent knowledge implicitly in their parameters. It is difficult to interpret or validate the knowledge obtained by LLMs. - Hallucination [15]: LLMs often experience hallucinations by generating content that while seemingly plausible but are factually incorrect [268]. This problem greatly reduces the trustworthiness of LLMs in real-world scenarios. - Indecisiveness [16]: LLMs perform reasoning by generating from a probability model, which is an indecisive process. The generated results are sampled from the probability distribution, which is difficult to control. - Black-box [17]: LLMs are criticized for their lack of interpretability. It is unclear to know the specific patterns and functions LLMs use to arrive at predictions or decisions. - Lacking Domain-specific/New Knowledge [18]: LLMs trained on general corpus might not be able to generalize well to specific domains or new knowledge due to the lack of domain-specific knowledge or new training data. KG pros. - Structural Knowledge [19]: KGs store facts in a structural format (i.e., triples), which can be understandable by both humans and machines. - Accuracy [20]: Facts in KGs are usually manually curated or validated by experts, which are more accurate and dependable than those in LLMs. - Decisiveness [21]: The factual knowledge in KGs is stored in a decisive manner. The reasoning algorithm in KGs is also deterministic, which can provide decisive results. - Interpretability [22]: KGs are renowned for their symbolic reasoning ability, which provides an interpretable reasoning process that can be understood by humans. - Domain-specific Knowledge [23]: Many domains can construct their KGs by experts to provide precise and dependable domain-specific knowledge. - Evolving Knowledge [24]: The facts in KGs are continuously evolving. The KGs can be updated with new facts by inserting new triples and deleting outdated ones. KG cons. - Incompleteness [25]: KGs are hard to construct and often incomplete, which limits the ability of KGs to provide comprehensive knowledge. - Lacking Language Understanding [33]: Most studies on KGs model the structure of knowledge, but ignore the textual information in KGs. The textual information in KGs is often ignored in KG-related tasks, such as KG completion [26] and KGQA [43]. - Unseen Facts [27]: KGs are dynamically changing, which makes it difficult to model unseen entities and represent new facts.